1.7.2 Papua
Province of Papua
Motto: Karya Swadaya (Sanskrit)
(Work with one's own might)
Capital
Jayapura
Governor
Barnabas Suebu
Area
421,981 km2 (162,928 sq mi)
Population
1,994,531 (2005)
Density
4.7 /km2 (12 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Indigenous: Melanesian (including Aitinyo, Aefak, Asmat, Agast, Dani, Ayamaru, Mandacan Biak, Serui), Non-indigenous (including Javanese, Bugis, Minangkabau, Batak, Minahasan, Chinese.)
Religion
Protestant (51.2%), Roman Catholic (25.42%), Islam (23%), others (2.5%)
Languages
Indonesian (official), 269 indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages[1]
Time zone
WIT (UTC+9)
Web site Papua.go.id
Papua is the largest province of Indonesia, comprising a majority part of the western half of the island of New Guinea and nearby islands (see also Western New Guinea). The province originally covered the entire western half of New Guinea, but in 2003, the western portion of the province, on the Bird's Head Peninsula, was declared by the Indonesian Government as a separate province named West Irian Jaya (now West Papua). The legality of this separation has been disputed as it conflicts with the conditions of the Special Autonomy status granted to Papua in the year 2000. The Papua Conflict takes place there.
(West) Papua has been engaged in a struggle for national liberation from Indonesia since it was annexed to the Indonesian state in 1969 in the discredited (but internationally recognized) 'Act of Free Choice' in which 'tribal' leaders were coerced by the Indonesian army into endorsing adherence to the Republic of Indonesia. This 'vote' was the culmination of a process by which U.S. state and corporate interests worked through the United Nations to pressure the Netherlands into allowing Indonesia to enact its claims sovereignty over West Papua. It has since been revealed that the U.S. mining giant Freeport-McMoRan, based in Houston, TX, signed a contract to exploit the world's largest gold and copper reserves located at Tempagapura, years before Indonesian sovereignty over Papua was made official. The Freeport mine continues to be exploited at great profit to the US company and the Indonesian state, and at great social and environmental cost to the Papuan people.
Contents
1 Naming
2 Government
3 Regions
4 Geography
5 Ethnic groups
6 Demographics
7 Ecology
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Naming
Within Indonesia and West Papua itself, 'Papua' usually refers to the entire western half of New Guinea - West Papua - despite its division into separate provinces by the Indonesian government. What is referred to as 'Papua' in Indonesia is generally referred to as 'West Papua' internationally - especially among networks of international solidarity with the West Papuan national movement.
"Papua" is the official Indonesian and internationally recognised name for the province. During the Dutch colonial era the region was known as part of "Dutch New Guinea" or "Netherlands New Guinea". Since its annexation in 1969, it became known as "West Irian" or "Irian Barat" until 1973, and thereafter renamed "Irian Jaya" (roughly translated, "Glorious Irian") by the Suharto administration.[2][3] This was the official name until "Papua" was adopted in 2002. Today, natives of this province prefer to call themselves Papuans rather than Irianese. This may be due to etymology (variously identified as a real etymology or a folk etymology) of the name Irian which stems from the acronym Ikut Republik Indonesia, Anti Nederland (join/follow the Republic of Indonesia, rejecting the Netherlands).[citation needed]
The name "West Papua" was adopted in 1961 by the New Guinea Council until the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) transferred administration to the Republic of Indonesia in 1963. "West Papua" has since been used among Papuan separatists and usually refers to the whole of the Indonesian portion of New Guinea. The other Indonesian province that shares New Guinea, West Irian Jaya, has been officially renamed as "West Papua".
Government
The province of Papua is governed by a directly-elected governor (currently Barnabas Suebu) and a regional legislature, DPRP (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Papua). A unique government organisation that only exists in Papua is the MRP (Majelis Rakyat Papua / Papuan People's Council) that was formed by the Indonesian Government in 2005 as a coalition of Papuan tribal chiefs, tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs.
Indonesian governance of Papua is controversial with international opinion varying a great deal. Some view it as naked colonialism, others maintain that Indonesia represents a legitimate authority with a willing people.[citation needed] Frank expression of views is complicated by the delicate and troubled relationship many nations have with Indonesia. The Free Papua Movement strives for independence of the area from Indonesia.[4] Like the rest of Indonesia, governance of the province has traditionally been strong and centralised from Jakarta. Papua was a major beneficiary of a nation-wide decentralisation process started in 1999 and the Special Autonomy status introduced in 2002. Measures included the formation of the MRP and redistribution of resource revenues. The implementation, however, of the Special Autonomy measures has been criticized by many as only being half-hearted.[citation needed]
In 1999 it was proposed to split the province into three government-controlled sectors, sparking Papuan protests (see external article). In January 2003 President Megawati Sukarnoputri signed an order dividing Papua into three provinces: Central Irian Jaya (Irian Jaya Tengah), Papua (or East Irian Jaya, Irian Jaya Timur), and West Papua (Irian Jaya Barat). The formality of installing a local government for Jaraka in Irian Jaya Barat (West) took place in February 2003 and a governor was appointed in November; a government for Irian Jaya Tengah (central) was delayed from August 2003 due to violent local protests. The creation of this separate central province was blocked by Indonesian courts, who declared it to be unconstitutional and in contravention of the Papua's special autonomy agreement. The previous division into two provinces was allowed to stand as an established fact. (King, 2004, p. 91)
In January 2006, 43 refugees landed on the coast of Australia and stated that the Indonesian military is carrying out a genocide in Papua. This was a rumor developed from military operations against OPM, the rebel group fighting for Papua's freedom. They were transported to an Australian immigration detention facility on Christmas Island, 360 km south of the western end of Java. On 23 March 2006, the Australian government granted temporary visas to 42 of the 43 asylum seekers (the 43rd, who had a Japanese visa at the time of his arrival, finally received an Australian visa in early August 2006).[5] On 24 March 2006 Indonesia recalled its ambassador to Australia.[6]
Despite the strength of the military and police as well as civilian infrastructure of the Indonesian state in Papua, certain remote areas are known to be out of the state's control; these areas are often thought of as being the domain of the national liberation movement, OPM (Organisasi Papua Merdeka - Free Papua Movement). This de facto Papuan sovereignty at certain isolated margins of the Indonesian state is under constant threat, however, by possibility and reality of Indonesian military and police activities, which frequently take the character of 'scorched earth' operations involving killings, beatings and torture of civilians as well as destruction of houses and farms.
Regions
Indonesia structures regions by regencies and subdistricts within those. Though names and areas of control of these regional structures can vary over time in accord with changing political and other requirements, in 2005 Papua province consisted of 19 regencies (kabupaten).
The regencies ("kabupaten") are: Asmat; Biak-Numfor; Boven Digoel; Jayapura; Jayawijaya; Keerom; Mappi; Merauke; Mimika; Nabire; Paniai; Pegunungan Bintang; Puncak Jaya; Sarmi; Supiori; Tolikara; Waropen; Yahukimo and Yapen Waropen. In addition to these, the city of Jayapura also has the status of a regency.
Jayapura, founded on 7 March 1910 as Hollandia, had by 1962 developed into a city with modern civil, educational, and medical services. Since Indonesian administration these services have been replaced by Indonesian equivalents such as the TNI (the army) replacing the Papua Battalion. The name of the city has been changed to Kotabaru, then to Sukarnopura and finally to its current official name. Among ethnic Papuans, it is also known as Port Numbai, the former name before the arrival of immigrants.
Jayapura is the largest city, boasting a small but active tourism industry, it is built on a slope overlooking the bay. Cenderawasih University (UNCEN) campus at Abepura houses the University Museum. Both Tanjung Ria beach, near the market at Hamadi — site of the 22 April 1944 Allied invasion during World War II — and the site of General Douglas MacArthur's World War II headquarters at Ifar Gunung have monuments commemorating the events.
Geography
A central east-west mountain range dominates the geography of New Guinea, over 1600 km in total length. The western section is around 600 km long and 100 km across. The province contains the highest mountains between the Himalayas and the Andes, rising up to 4884 m high, and ensuring a steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere. The tree line is around 4000 m elevation and the tallest peaks contain permanent equatorial glaciers, increasingly melting due to a changing climate. Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges. Except in high elevations, most areas possess a hot humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season.
The third major habitat feature are the vast southern and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometers, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, and some of the largest expanses of mangrove forest in the world. The southern lowlands are the site of Lorentz National Park, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The province's largest river is the Mamberamo, sometimes called the "Amazon of Papua", which winds through the northern part of the province. The result is a large area of lakes and rivers known as the Lakes Plains region. The famous Baliem Valley, home of the Dani people is a tableland 1600 m above sea level in the midst of the central mountain range; Puncak Jaya, sometimes known by its former Dutch name Carstensz Pyramid, is a mist covered limestone mountain peak 4884 m above sea level.
Ethnic groups
The following are some of the most well-known ethnic groups of Papua:
Amungme
Asmat
Bauzi
Dani
Kamoro
Kombai
Korowai
Mee
Sentani
Yali
Yei
Demographics
The population of Papua province and the neighbouring West Papua province, both of which are still under a united administration, totalled 2,646,489 in 2005.[7] Since the early 1990s Papua has had the highest population growth rate of all Indonesian provinces at over 3% annually. This is partly a result of high birth rates, but mainly due to state-sponsored migration from Java. While indigenous Papuans formed the near-totality of the population in 1961, they are now roughly 50% of the population, the other half being composed of Indonesian migrants taking part in Indonesia's project of colonization, which simultaneously serves the interest of international resource exploitation capital. Current projections indicate the likelihood that indigenous Papuans will rapidly become a minority in their land within the next few years, unless Papuans succeed in claiming the power to regulate migration to Papua - which is unlikely to occur within the status quo of Indonesia sovereignty.
According to the 2000 census, 78% of the Papuans identified themselves as Christian with 54% being Protestant and 24% being Roman Catholic. 21% of the population was Muslim and less than 1% was Buddhist or Hindu.[8] There is also substantial practice of animism by Papuans, which is not recognised by the Indonesian government in line with the policy of Pancasila.
The densest population center, other than the large coastal cities that house Indonesian bureaucratic and commercial apparatus, is located in and around the town of Wamena in the Palim (a.k.a. Baliem) Valley of the Central Highlands. The 'extreme democracy' and ecological stewardship of the highlands Papuan society is documented by Jared Diamond in the book Collapse.
Ecology
A vital tropical rainforest with the tallest tropical trees and vast biodiversity, Papua's known forest fauna includes marsupials (including possums, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, cuscuses), other mammals (including the endangered Long-beaked Echidna), many bird species (including birds of paradise, cassowaries, parrots, cockatoos), the world's longest lizards (Papua monitor) and the world's largest butterflies.
The island has an estimated 16,000 species of plant, 124 genera of which are endemic.
The extensive waterways and wetlands of Papua are also home to salt and freshwater crocodile, tree monitors, flying foxes, osprey, bats and other animals; while the equatorial glacier fields remain largely unexplored.
In February 2006, a team of scientists exploring the Foja Mountains, Sarmi, discovered numerous new species of birds, butterflies, amphibians, and plants, including possibly the largest-flowered species of rhododendron.[9]
Protected areas within Papua province include the Lorentz National Park, which is also a World Heritage site and the Wasur National Park, a RAMSAR wetland of international importance.
Ecological threats include logging-induced deforestation, forest conversion for plantation agriculture (especially oil palm), smallholder agricultural conversion, the introduction and potential spread of alien species such as the Crab-eating Macaque which preys on and competes with indigenous species, the illegal species trade, and water pollution from oil and mining operations.
Papua's ancient rain forests have recently come under an even greater threat of deforestation after the Chinese government placed an order of 1 billion US dollar or 800,000 cubic meters of the threatened merbau rainforest timbers, used in buildings for the 2008 Summer Olympics.[10]
In remote forested valleys, several thousand smallholder farmers are growing Arabica coffee in the shade of Calliandra, Erythrina and Albizia trees. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are not available in these valleys. Since there are no roads, the coffee is flown out and then exported from the port of Jayapura.[11]
Sunday, April 18, 2010
West Papua
1.7.1 West Papua
West Papua
Motto: Cintaku Negeriku (Indonesian)
(My love, my country)
Capital
Manokwari
Governor
Abraham Octavianus Atururi
Area
115,364 km2 (44,542 sq mi)
Population
651,958
Density
5.7 /km2 (15 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Melanesian
Religion
Christianity, Islam
Languages
Indonesian (official)
Time zone
UTC+9
Web site www.papuabaratprov.go.id
West Papua (Indonesian: Papua Barat) is an Indonesian province on the western peninsula of the island of New Guinea, west of Papua, another province of Indonesia. It is the least-populous province of Indonesia. The population of West Papua is around 800,000. Before 2007, the province was known as West Irian Jaya or Irian Jaya Barat) The province covers the Bird's Head (or Doberai) Peninsula and surrounding islands. The Papua Conflict is an ongoing long-term low-level conflict that takes place on West Papua and Papua against the Indonesian government.
Contents
1 Administrative divisions
2 Administrative history
3 Earthquake
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Administrative divisions
The capital of West Papua is in Manokwari. The province is administratively divided into eight regencies (kabupaten) and one city (kota):
Fak-fak (Fak-Fak)
Kaimana
Manokwari
Raja Ampat (capital Waisai)
Sorong
Kota Sorong (city)
Sorong Selatan (capital Teminabuan)
Teluk Bintuni (capital Bintuni)
Teluk Wondama (capital Rasiei)
Administrative history
Map of West Papua
West Papua was created from the western portion of Papua province in February 2003, initially under the name of Irian Jaya Barat, and was renamed Papua Barat (West Papua) on 7 February 2007. The split remains controversial. Supporters, including those in the central government in Jakarta and immigrants to Papua from elsewhere in Indonesia, argue that the creation of the new province will help ensure the efficient management of resources and fair distribution of services. The split is widely opposed in Papua itself, where it is viewed as a violation of special autonomy laws governing Papua, and as an effort to quell the Papuan separatist movement (see History of Western New Guinea).
In November 2004, an Indonesian court agreed that the split violated Papua's autonomy laws. However, the court ruled that because the new province had already been created, it should remain separate from Papua. The ruling also prohibited the creation of another proposed province, Central Irian Jaya, because the split was not yet completed.
The province changed its name to West Papua on 7 February 2007. The new name applies from that date, but a plenary session of the provincial legislative council is required to legalise the change of name, and the government needs to then issue a regulation.[1]
Earthquake
At 4:43 a.m. local time on 3 January 2009, a powerful earthquake, 7.6 on the Richter magnitude scale, struck near the northern coast of Indonesia's largest province. A tsunami warning was initially issued but lifted within an hour of the quake.[2][3] The earthquake occurred about 150 km west-northwest of Manokwari and about 170 km east-northeast of Sorong.[3]
West Papua
Motto: Cintaku Negeriku (Indonesian)
(My love, my country)
Capital
Manokwari
Governor
Abraham Octavianus Atururi
Area
115,364 km2 (44,542 sq mi)
Population
651,958
Density
5.7 /km2 (15 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Melanesian
Religion
Christianity, Islam
Languages
Indonesian (official)
Time zone
UTC+9
Web site www.papuabaratprov.go.id
West Papua (Indonesian: Papua Barat) is an Indonesian province on the western peninsula of the island of New Guinea, west of Papua, another province of Indonesia. It is the least-populous province of Indonesia. The population of West Papua is around 800,000. Before 2007, the province was known as West Irian Jaya or Irian Jaya Barat) The province covers the Bird's Head (or Doberai) Peninsula and surrounding islands. The Papua Conflict is an ongoing long-term low-level conflict that takes place on West Papua and Papua against the Indonesian government.
Contents
1 Administrative divisions
2 Administrative history
3 Earthquake
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Administrative divisions
The capital of West Papua is in Manokwari. The province is administratively divided into eight regencies (kabupaten) and one city (kota):
Fak-fak (Fak-Fak)
Kaimana
Manokwari
Raja Ampat (capital Waisai)
Sorong
Kota Sorong (city)
Sorong Selatan (capital Teminabuan)
Teluk Bintuni (capital Bintuni)
Teluk Wondama (capital Rasiei)
Administrative history
Map of West Papua
West Papua was created from the western portion of Papua province in February 2003, initially under the name of Irian Jaya Barat, and was renamed Papua Barat (West Papua) on 7 February 2007. The split remains controversial. Supporters, including those in the central government in Jakarta and immigrants to Papua from elsewhere in Indonesia, argue that the creation of the new province will help ensure the efficient management of resources and fair distribution of services. The split is widely opposed in Papua itself, where it is viewed as a violation of special autonomy laws governing Papua, and as an effort to quell the Papuan separatist movement (see History of Western New Guinea).
In November 2004, an Indonesian court agreed that the split violated Papua's autonomy laws. However, the court ruled that because the new province had already been created, it should remain separate from Papua. The ruling also prohibited the creation of another proposed province, Central Irian Jaya, because the split was not yet completed.
The province changed its name to West Papua on 7 February 2007. The new name applies from that date, but a plenary session of the provincial legislative council is required to legalise the change of name, and the government needs to then issue a regulation.[1]
Earthquake
At 4:43 a.m. local time on 3 January 2009, a powerful earthquake, 7.6 on the Richter magnitude scale, struck near the northern coast of Indonesia's largest province. A tsunami warning was initially issued but lifted within an hour of the quake.[2][3] The earthquake occurred about 150 km west-northwest of Manokwari and about 170 km east-northeast of Sorong.[3]
Western New Guinea
1.7 Western New Guinea
Western New Guinea
West Papua
Region
Country Indonesia
Cities Jayapura, Manokwari, Sorong, Timika, Fak Fak
Provinces 2[show]
Area 420,540 km2 (162,371 sq mi)
Highest point Puncak Jaya
- location Sudirman Range
- coordinates 4°5′S 137°11′E4.083°S 137.183°E
- elevation 4,884 m (16,024 ft)
Population 2,646,489 (2005)
Density 6 /km2 (16 /sq mi)
Time zone WIT (UTC+9)
ISO 3166-2
ID-IJ
License plate DS
Western New Guinea is the western half of the island of New Guinea. It is the easternmost part of Indonesia, consisting of two provinces: Papua and West Papua. It was previously known by various names, including Netherlands New Guinea (1895–1 October 1962), West New Guinea (1 October 1962–1 May 1963), West Irian (1 May 1963–1973), and Irian Jaya (1973–2000). The incorporation of western New Guinea into Indonesia remains controversial with many of the territory's indigenous population and many NGOs such as the Free Papua Movement[1][2] and International Parliamentarians for West Papua (IPWP), whose members include parliamentarians from Britain, Czech Republic, New Zealand, Australia and Vanuatu, United States, Sweden and the Netherlands.[3]. Many who oppose Western New Guinea's incorporation into Indonesia refer to it as West Papua.
During the 1950s the Dutch government began to prepare Netherlands New Guinea for full independence and allowed elections in 1959; an elected Papuan council, the New Guinea Council (Nieuw Guinea Raad) took office on April 5, 1961. The Council decided on the name of West Papua, a national emblem, a flag called the Morning Star or Bintang Kejora, and a national anthem; the flag was first raised — next to the Dutch flag — on December 1, 1961. However, Indonesia threatened with an invasion, after full mobilisation of its army, by August 15, 1962, after receiving military help from the Soviet Union. Under strong pressure of the United States government (under the Kennedy administration) the Dutch, who were prepared to resist an Indonesian attack, attended diplomatic talks. On October 1, 1962, the Dutch handed over the territory to a temporary UN administration (UNTEA). On May 1, 1963, Indonesia took control. The territory was renamed West Irian and then Irian Jaya.
Western New Guinea was annexed by Indonesia under the 1969 Act of Free Choice contrary to Article XIV and Article XVIII of the 1962 New York Agreement. During the rule of President Suharto from 1965 to 1998, human rights and other advocates[who?] criticized Indonesian government policies in the province as repressive, and the area received relatively little attention in Indonesia's development plans. During the Reformasi period from 1998 to 2001, Papua and other Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, a law was passed granting "Special Autonomy" status to Papua, although many of the law's requirements have either not been implemented or have been only minimally implemented.[4]
In 2003, the Indonesian central government declared that the province would be split into three provinces: Papua Province, Central Irian Jaya Province, and West Irian Jaya Province. Opposition to this resulted in the plan for Central Irian Jaya province being scrapped, and even the designation of West Irian Jaya Province is still legally unclear. Despite this, the West Irian Jaya (Irian Jaya Barat) province was formed on February 6, 2006, and the name was officially changed to West Papua (Papua Barat) on February 7, 2007. The independent sovereign state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) borders Papua Province to the east.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Netherlands New Guinea
1.2 Incorporation into Indonesia
2 The Act Of Free Choice
3 Indonesian clampdown on independence activities
4 International Parliamentarians for West Papua
5 Regions
6 Geography
7 Demographics
8 Tribes
9 Ecology
10 Culture
11 See also
12 References
13 Notes
14 Further reading
15 External links
History
Papuans have inhabited the Australasian continental island of New Guinea for over 40,000 years while Austronesians have been there for several thousand years. These groups have developed diverse cultures and languages in situ; there are over 300 languages and two hundred additional dialects in West New Guinea alone (See Papuan languages, Austronesian languages).
On June 13, 1545, Ortiz de Retez, in command of the San Juan, left port in Tidore, an island of the East Indies and sailed to reach the northern coast of the island of New Guinea, which he ventured along as far as the mouth of the Mamberamo River. He took possession of the land for the Spanish Crown, in the process giving the island the name by which it is known today. He called it Nueva Guinea owing to the resemblance of the local inhabitants to the peoples of the Guinea coast in West Africa.
Netherlands New Guinea
Dutch expeditions in Netherlands New Guinea 1907–1915.
In 1828, the Dutch claimed the south coast west of the 141st meridian, and in 1848 added the north coast west of Humboldt Bay. The border at 141° East was 'marked' on the coast by iron signpost displaying the Dutch coat of arms by an expedition in 1881[5]. The Netherlands established trading posts in the area after Great Britain and Germany recognised the Dutch claims in treaties of 1885 and 1895. At much the same time, Britain claimed south-east New Guinea, later known as the Territory of Papua, and Germany claimed the northeast, later known as the Territory of New Guinea.
In 1923, the Nieuw Guinea Beweging (New Guinea Movement) was created in the Netherlands by ultra right-wing supporters calling for Dutchmen to create a tropical Netherlands in Papua. This prewar movement without full government support was largely unsuccessful in its drive, but did coincide with the development of a plan for Eurasian settlement of the Dutch Indies to establish Dutch farms in northern West New Guinea. This effort also failed as most returned to Java disillusioned, and by 1938 just 50 settlers remained near Hollandia and 258 in Manokwari.
In the early 1930s, the need for a national Papuan government was discussed by graduates of the Dutch Protestant Missionary Teachers College in Mei Wondama, Manokwari. These graduates continued their discussions among the wider community and quickly succeeded in cultivating a desire for national unity across the region and its three hundred languages. The College Principal Rev. Kijne also composed "Hai Tanahku Papua" ("Oh My Land Papua"), which in 1961 was adopted as the national anthem.
A exploration company NNGPM was formed in 1935 by Shell (40%), Mobil (40%) and Chevron's Far Pacific investments (20%) to explore West New Guinea. During 1936, Jean Dozy working for NNGPM reported the world's richest gold and copper deposits in a mountain near Timika which he named Ertsberg (Mountain of Ore). Unable to license the find from the Dutch or indigenous landowners, NNGPM maintained secrecy of the discovery.
In 1942, the northern coast of West New Guinea and the nearby islands were occupied by Japan. Allied forces expelled the Japanese in 1944, and with Papuan approval, the United States constructed a headquarters for Gen. Douglas MacArthur at Hollandia (now Jayapura) and over twenty US bases and hospitals intended as a staging point for operations taking of the Philippines.
West New Guinean farms supplied food for the half million US troops. Papuan men went into battle to carry the wounded, acted as guides and translators, and provided a range of services, from construction work and carpentry to serving as machine shop workers and mechanics.
The Dutch retained possession of West New Guinea from 1945, but upon reaching Java 4,000 km (2,490 mi) west they did not find similar levels of support from the population of Java. Indonesian leaders Mohammad Hatta and Sukarno had declared independence weeks before and claimed all Dutch possessions should become part of the United States of Indonesia. The dispute continued until the Round Table Conference, which was held from August to October 1949 at the Hague. Unable to reach a compromise on the matter of West New Guinea, the conference closed with the parties agreeing to discuss the West New Guinea issue within one year.
In December 1950[6] the United Nations requested the Special Committee on Decolonization to accept transmission of information regarding the territory in accord with Article 73 of the Charter of the United Nations. Article 73 constituted formal recognition of the territory's right to independence and the Netherlands obligation to assist. After repeated Indonesian claims to possession of Dutch New Guinea, the Netherlands invited Indonesia to present its claim before an International Court of Law. Indonesia declined the offer. Concerned by Indonesian insurgencies beginning in 1950, the Netherlands accelerated its education and technical programs in preparation for independence. A naval academy was opened in 1956, and Papuan troops and naval cadets began service by 1957.
By 1959, Papuans were nurses, dental surgeons, draftsmen, architects, telephone repairmen, and radio and power technicians, cultivating a range of experimental commercial crops and serving as police, forestry and meteorological staff. This progress towards self-government was documented in reports prepared for the United Nations from 1950 to 1961.
Local Council elections were held and Papuan representatives elected from 1955. On 6 March 1959 the New York Times published an article revealing the Dutch government had discovered alluvial gold flowing into the Arafura Sea and were searching for the gold's mountain source.[citation needed] In 1959, Freeport Sulphur approached the Dutch East Borneo company for partnership. An agreement signed in January 1960 to lodge a Dutch claim for the Timika area as a copper deposit did not inform the government about the gold or known extent of the copper deposit.[citation needed]
Election of a national parliament began on 9 January 1961 in fifteen electoral districts with direct voting in Manokwari and Hollandia to select 26 Councillors, of whom 16 were elected, 12 appointed, 23 were Papuan, and one female Councillors. The Councillors were sworn in by Governor Platteel on 1 April 1961, and the Council took office on 5 April 1961. The inauguration was attended by officials from Australia, Britain, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and members of the South Pacific Commission; a large Australian delegation was headed by Mr Hasluck MP and included Sir Alistair McMullan, President of Australian Senate. The United States declined the invitation to attend the inauguration.
After news that the Hague was considering a United States plan to trade the territory to United Nations administration, Papuan Councillors met for six hours in the New Guinea Council building on 19 October 1961 to elect a National Committee which drafted a Manifesto for Independence & Self-government, a National flag (Morning Star), State Seal, selected a national anthem ("Hai Tanahkoe Papua" / "Oh My Land Papua"), and called for the people to be known as Papuans. The New Guinea Council voted unanimous support of these proposals on 30 October 1961, and on the 31st October 1961 presented the Morning Star flag and Manifesto to Governor Platteel who said (translated) "Never before has the oneness of the Council been put forward so strongly." The Dutch recognized the flag and anthem on November 18, 1961 (Government Gazettes of Dutch New Guinea Nos. 68 and 69), and these ordinances came into effect on December 1, 1961.
Incorporation into Indonesia
At the US White House a proposal to have the Netherlands trade West New Guinea to Indonesia was opposed by the Bureau of European Affairs who viewed this "would simply trade white for brown colonialism"; but from April 1961 Robert Komer and McGeorge Bundy promoted a plan to have the United Nations give the transfer an outward appearance of legitimacy. Though reluctant, John Kennedy was told the transfer of the territory was the only means to prevent Indonesia turning to Soviet aid.[7]
The Morning Star, flag of West Papua, was designed by the New Guinea Council in 1961. Its display is prohibited in Indonesia.
The Morning Star flag was raised next to the Dutch tricolour on December 1, 1961, an act which Papuan independence supporters celebrate each year at flag raising ceremonies. National Committee Chairman Mr Inury said: "My Dear compatriots, you are looking at the symbol of our unity and our desire to take our place among the nations of the world. As long as we are not really united we shall not be free. To be united means to work hard for the good of our country, now, until the day that we shall be independent, and further from that day on."
On January 2, 1962, Indonesia, which had made seven known insurgency attempts since 1950, now created the Mandala Command headed by Brig. General Suharto to coordinate military efforts for the territory. Two previous insurgencies, Pasukan Gerilya 100 (November 1960) and Pasukan Gerilya 200 (September 1961), were followed by Pasukan Gerilya 300 with 115 insurgents leaving Jakarta on four Jaguar class torpedo boats (January 15), intercepted in the Aru Sea the lead boat was sunk and 51 survivors were picked up after Commodore Yos Sudarso went down with his boat.[8]
Continuing US efforts to have the Netherlands secretly negotiate the transfer of the territory to Indonesian administration eventually succeeded in creating the "New York Agreement" signed in August 1962. The Australian government, which previously had been a firm supporter of Papuan independence, also reversed its policy to support incorporation with Indonesia.[7][9]
The agreement, ratified in the UN on September 21, 1962, stipulated that authority would transfer to a United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) on 1 October 1962, and that once UNTEA had informed the public of the terms of the Agreement had the option to transfer administration of the territory to Indonesia after May 1, 1963, until such time as an "Act of Free Choice" could determine the will of the people. Under Article 18 of the Agreement "all adults, male and female, not foreign nationals" were to be allowed to vote in an Act "in accordance with international practice". On May 1, 1963, UNTEA transferred total administration of West New Guinea to the Republic of Indonesia. The capital Hollandia was renamed Kota Baru for the transfer to Indonesian administration and on 5 September 1963, West Irian was declared a "quarantine territory" with Foreign Minister Subandrio administrating visitor permits.
The Sukarno-era "West Irian Liberation Statue" in Jakarta.
The Act Of Free Choice
Although United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2504 did acknowledge that an event called Act of Free Choice took place, neither the General Assembly nor International Court of Justice gave their opinion about the event, nor did they claim the Act to have been any form of self determination. Although the United Nations representative Ambassador Fernando Ortiz-Sanz was unable to get Indonesia to allow a "one-man, one-vote" within the territory, the Indonesian authorities declared that there was a unanimous vote against independence. However, participants and other observers question the conduct and legitimacy of the process. It is widely reported that just 1000 tribal elders were allowed by the Indonesian military to vote[10], in direct contravention of Article 18 of the New York Agreement which stated "The eligibility of all adults, male and female, not foreign nationals to participate in the act of self-determination to be carried out in accordance with international practice". As such the vote was not an expression of self-determination. Men who were selected for the vote subsequently testified that they had been blackmailed and threatened at gunpoint into voting against independence with threats of violence against their families and communities. Although Indonesia denies these allegations, recently released United States government correspondence indicates that the pro-Indonesian outcome was effectively agreed in advance between Indonesia and the U.S.[11]
Indonesian clampdown on independence activities
Since the 1960s, consistent reports have filtered out of the territory of government suppression and terrorism, including murder, political assassination, imprisonment, torture, and aerial bombardments. The Indonesian government disbanded the New Guinea Council and forbade the use of the West Papua flag or the singing of the national anthem. There has been considerable resistance to Indonesian integration and occupation, both through civil disobedience (such as Morning Star flag raising ceremonies) and via the formation of the Organisasi Papua Merdeka (OPM, or Free Papua Movement) in 1965. The movement's military arm is the TPN, or Liberation Army of Free Papua. Estimates vary on the death toll, with wild variation in the number claimed dead. A Sydney University academic has estimated more than 100,000 Papuans, one sixteenth of the population, have died as a result of government-sponsored violence against West Papuans,[12] while others had previously specified much higher death tolls.[13]
After General Suharto replaced Sukarno as President of Indonesia, Freeport Sulphur was the first foreign company awarded a mining license, a 30 year license to mine the Tembagapura region of Papua for gold and copper.
In 1969, General Sarwo Edhi Wibowo oversaw the Indonesian conduct of the widely criticized "Act of Free Choice." Prior to the vote, the Indonesian military rounded up and detained for one month a large group of Papuan tribal leaders. The Papuans were daily threatened with death at gunpoint if the entire group did not vote to continue Indonesian rule. Assembled troops and two Western observers acted as witnesses to the public vote; however, the Western observers left after witnessing the first two hundred (of 1,054) votes for integration. Concerned over Communism in South East Asia, and with an eye toward extracting Papua's vast mineral wealth, the US and other Western powers ignored protests over the circumstances surrounding the vote [14] The process was deemed to have been an "Act of Free Choice" in accordance with the United Nations requirements, and Indonesia formally annexed the territory in August. Dissenters mockingly called it the "Act of No Choice" or "Act Free of Choice."
In 1971, construction of the world's largest copper and gold mine (also the world's largest open cut mine) began. Under an Indonesian agreement signed in 1967 (two years before the "Act of Free Choice"), the US company Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc. obtained a 30-year exclusive mining license from Suharto in (dating from the mine's opening in 1973). The pact was extended in 1991 by another 30 years. After 1988 with the opening of the Grasberg mine it became the biggest gold mine and lowest extraction-price copper mine in the world. Locals made several violent attempts to dissuade the mine owners, including sabotage of a pipeline that July, but order was quickly restored.
In the 1970s and 1980s, the Indonesian state accelerated its transmigration program, under which tens of thousands of Javanese and Sumatran migrants were resettled to Papua. Prior to Indonesian rule, the non-indigenous Asian population was estimated at 16,600; while the Papuan population were a mix of Roman Catholics, Protestants and pagan people following tribal religions[15]. Critics suspect that the transmigration program's purpose was to tip the balance of the province's population from the heavily Melanesian Papuans toward western Indonesians, thus further consolidating Indonesian control. The transmigration program officially ended in the late 1990s, although so-called "spontaneous migration" by western Indonesians voluntarily relocating to provinces such as Papua seeking economic opportunity has increased and remains at high levels.[citation needed]
A separatist congress in 2000 again calling for independence resulted in a military crackdown on independence supporters. In 2001, a now-majority Islamic population was given limited autonomy. An August 2001, US State Department travel warning advised "all travel by US and other foreign government officials to Aceh, Papua and the Moluccas (provinces of North Maluku and Maluku) has been restricted by the Indonesian government".
During the Abdurrahman Wahid administration in 2000, Papua gained a "Special Autonomy" status, an attempted political compromise between separatists and the central government that has weak support within the Jakarta government. Despite lack of political will of politicians in Jakarta to proceed with real implementation of the Special Autonomy, which is stipulated by law, the region was divided into two provinces: the province of Papua and the province of West Papua, based on a Presidential Instruction in January 2001, soon after President Wahid was impeached by the Parliament and replaced by Vice President Megawati Sukarnoputri. The division of the province has neither directly cancelled the Law of Special Autonomy of Papua nor engaged ongoing protest in the region. There was brief consideration of dividing the territory into thirds, but the plan was quickly abandoned. The plan again gained support in early 2008.
In January 2006, 43 refugees in a traditional canoe landed on the coast of Australia with a banner stating the Indonesian military was carrying out a genocide in Papua. They were transported to an Australian immigration detention facility on Christmas Island, 2,600 km (1,400 nmi) north-west of Perth, and 360 km (190 nmi) south of the western head of Java. On March 23, 2006, the Australian government granted temporary protection visas to 42 of the 43 having determined all 43 were bonafide refugees.[16] A day later Indonesia recalled its ambassador to Australia.[17] A number of expatriate Papuans currently campaign for independence in Australia, the United Kingdom and other countries, and call for international support for their campaigns. Their claims, which sometimes include allegations of historic or present genocide, are strongly challenged by Indonesia, and Papuan independence is not supported by any recognised government except that of Vanuatu.
International Parliamentarians for West Papua
On October 15 2008, the International Parliamentarians for West Papua was launched at the Houses of Parliament, London[18]. The group was set up by exiled West Papuan independence leader Benny Wenda, and is chaired by the British MP Andrew Smith (politician) and Lord Harries. The group set out aims to develop international parliamentary support for West Papuan self-determination, through "recognising the inalienable right of the indigenous people of West Papua to self-determination, which was violated in the 1969 “Act of Free Choice”[19]. Some of the founding members of the group were also involved in a similar group that was set up for East Timor prior to it gaining independence from Indonesia. So far the group has gathered support from politicians in countries including the United Kingdom, The United States of America, Australia, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea[20].
Regions
Indonesia structures regions by Regencies and districts within those. Though names and areas of control of these regional structures can vary over time in accord with changing political and other requirements, in 2004 Papua province (including what is now West Papua province) consisted of 27 regencies (kabupaten), 2 cities (kotamadya), 117 subdistricts (kecamatan), 66 kelurahan, and 830 villages (desa).
Map of Papua and West Papua Province (before their separation) showing major cities and before designation of new regencies in 2004.
As of 2004, the Regencies in Papua province were: Asmat, Biak Numfor, Boven Digoel, Jayapura, Kota Jayapura, Jayawijaya, Keerom, Mappi, Merauke, Mimika, Nabire, Paniai, Pegunungan Bintang, Puncak Jaya, Sarmi, Supiori, Tolikara, Waropen, Yahukimo, and Yapen Waropen. The Regencies in the same time period for West Papua province were: Fak-Fak, Kaimana, Manokwari, Raja Ampat, Sorong, Kota Sorong, Sorong Selatan, Teluk Bintuni, and Teluk Wondama.
In 2003 the western-most third of Papua province was split into a separate province, called West Irian Jaya, which was itself renamed West Papua province in 2007.
Jayapura, founded in 1910 as Hollandia, had by 1962 developed into a city with modern civil, educational, and medical services. Since Indonesian administration these services have been replaced by Indonesian equivalents such as the TNI (military) replacing the Papuan police force. The name of the city has been changed from Hollandia, to Kotabaru then Sukarnopura and finally Jayapura.
It is the largest city in Western New Guinea, boasting a small but active tourism industry, it is a neat and pleasant city built on a slope overlooking the bay. Cenderawasih University campus houses the Jayapura Museum. Tanjung Ria beach, well-known to the Allies during World War II, is a popular holiday resort now with facilities for water sports, and General Douglas MacArthur's World War II quarters are still intact.
Geography
Land Area
Area 420,540 km2 (162,371 sq mi)
Climate
Rainfall 100 to 10,000 mm (4–400 in)
Temperature 0 to 32 °C (32–90 °F)
Humidity 80%
A central east-west mountain range dominates the geography of New Guinea, over 1,600 km (994 mi) in total length. The western section is around 600 km (373 mi) long and 100 km (62 mi) across. Steep mountains 3,000 to 4,000 m (9,850–13,100 ft) and up to 5,000 m (16,400 ft) high along the range ensures a steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere. The tree line is around 4,000 m (13,100 ft) elevation and the tallest peaks are snowbound year round.
Both north and west of the central ranges the land remains mountainous — mostly 1,000 to 2,000 m (3,300–6,660 ft) high — and covered by thick rain forest with a warm humid climate year round.
The third major habitat feature is the south east lowlands with extensive wetlands stretching for hundreds of kilometers.
The province has 40 major rivers, 12 lakes, and 40 islands. The Mamberamo river, sometimes referred to as the "Amazon of Papua" is the province's largest river which winds through the northern part of the province. The result is a large area of lakes and rivers known as the Lakes Plains region. The vast southern lowlands, which consist of a mosaic of habitats including mangrove, tidal and freshwater swamp forest and lowland rainforest, are home to a dense population of fishermen and gatherers such as the Asmat people. The famous Baliem Valley, home of the Dani people is a tableland 1,600 m (5,250 ft) above sea level in the midst of the central mountain range; Puncak Jaya (formerly Carstensz Pyramid) is a mist covered limestone mountain peak 4,884 m (16,024 ft) above sea level, the highest point in Indonesia.
The border with Papua New Guinea mostly follows the 141st meridian, with one section defined by the Fly River. This border is largely unguarded, and has seen a dramatic amount of refugees and illegal aliens cross over to PNG to flee the Indonesians. There are no reliable estimates on how many have crossed.
Demographics
The combined population of the Indonesian provinces of West Irian Jaya and Papua, constituting all of Western New Guinea, was estimated to be 2,646,489 in 2005. The two largest cities in the territory are Sorong in the northwest of the Bird's Head Peninsula and Jayapura in the northeast. Both cities have a population of approximately 200,000.
As in Papua New Guinea and some surrounding east Indonesian provinces, a large majority of the population is Christian. In the 2000 census 54% of West Papuans identified themselves as Protestant, 24% as Catholic, 21% as Muslim, and less than 1% as either Hindu or Buddhist. There is also substantial practice of animism among the major religions, but this is not recorded by the Indonesian census.
Tribes
Church in Kuala Kencana.
Western New Guinea is home to around 312 different tribes, including some uncontacted peoples.[21] The following are some of the most well-known:
Amungme
Asmat
Bauzi
Biak (Byak)
Damal
Dani
Kamoro
Kombai
Korowai
Lani
Mee
Mek
Nduga
Sawi
Sentani
Yali
Ecology
A vital tropical rainforest with the tallest tropical trees and vast biodiversity, Papua's known forest fauna includes marsupials (including possums, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, cuscus), other mammals (including the endangered long-beaked echidna), many bird species (including birds of paradise, cassowaries, parrots, cockatoos), the world's longest lizards (Papua monitor) and some of the world's largest butterflies.
Animal Group Est. Number
Mammals 180
Marsupial Mammals 70
Birds 700
Endemic Birds 450
Bats 70
The island has an estimated 16,000 species of plant, 124 genera of which are endemic.
The extensive waterways and wetlands of Papua are also home to salt and freshwater crocodile, tree monitor, flying foxes, osprey, bats and other animals; while the equatorial glacier fields remain largely unexplored.
In February 2005, a team of scientists exploring the Foja Mountains discovered numerous new species of birds, butterflies, amphibians, and plants, including a species of rhododendron which may have the largest bloom of the genus.[22]
Ecological dangers include deforestation at an alarming rate; the spread of the exotic Crab-eating Macaque (monkey) which now threatens the existence of many native species; pollution such as Grasberg mine dumping 230 000[23] tonnes of copper and gold tailings into the rivers system each day.
Culture
West Papuans share many affinities with the culture of Papua New Guinea (PNG) to the east. As with PNG, the peoples of the highlands have distinct traditions and languages from peoples of the coasts.
Many aspects of West Papuan culture have been forcibly repressed since the area's 1963 incorporation into the Indonesian state. In 2001 the province was granted special autonomy by the Indonesian government, opening the possibility of increased indigenous cultural production and arts venues.
Some Papuans fear that the history of Indonesian repression, education, propaganda, and transmigration have negatively impacted Papuan cultures. In March 2003 John Rumbiak stated that Papuan culture "will be extinct" within 10 to 20 years, if the present rate of assimilation in the region continues.[24] In response to such criticism the Indonesian government states that the special autonomy arrangement specifically addresses the ongoing preservation of Papua culture, and that the transmigration program was "designed specifically to help the locals through knowledge transfer."[25] Papua advocates view such responses as a continuation of the Indonesian state's tendency to view Papuans as "primitives" in need of "development."[26]
In some parts of the highlands, the koteka is traditionally worn by males in ceremonial contexts. Despite government efforts to suppress it, the use of the koteka as everyday dress by Dani males in Western New Guinea is still very common.
Western New Guinea
West Papua
Region
Country Indonesia
Cities Jayapura, Manokwari, Sorong, Timika, Fak Fak
Provinces 2[show]
Area 420,540 km2 (162,371 sq mi)
Highest point Puncak Jaya
- location Sudirman Range
- coordinates 4°5′S 137°11′E4.083°S 137.183°E
- elevation 4,884 m (16,024 ft)
Population 2,646,489 (2005)
Density 6 /km2 (16 /sq mi)
Time zone WIT (UTC+9)
ISO 3166-2
ID-IJ
License plate DS
Western New Guinea is the western half of the island of New Guinea. It is the easternmost part of Indonesia, consisting of two provinces: Papua and West Papua. It was previously known by various names, including Netherlands New Guinea (1895–1 October 1962), West New Guinea (1 October 1962–1 May 1963), West Irian (1 May 1963–1973), and Irian Jaya (1973–2000). The incorporation of western New Guinea into Indonesia remains controversial with many of the territory's indigenous population and many NGOs such as the Free Papua Movement[1][2] and International Parliamentarians for West Papua (IPWP), whose members include parliamentarians from Britain, Czech Republic, New Zealand, Australia and Vanuatu, United States, Sweden and the Netherlands.[3]. Many who oppose Western New Guinea's incorporation into Indonesia refer to it as West Papua.
During the 1950s the Dutch government began to prepare Netherlands New Guinea for full independence and allowed elections in 1959; an elected Papuan council, the New Guinea Council (Nieuw Guinea Raad) took office on April 5, 1961. The Council decided on the name of West Papua, a national emblem, a flag called the Morning Star or Bintang Kejora, and a national anthem; the flag was first raised — next to the Dutch flag — on December 1, 1961. However, Indonesia threatened with an invasion, after full mobilisation of its army, by August 15, 1962, after receiving military help from the Soviet Union. Under strong pressure of the United States government (under the Kennedy administration) the Dutch, who were prepared to resist an Indonesian attack, attended diplomatic talks. On October 1, 1962, the Dutch handed over the territory to a temporary UN administration (UNTEA). On May 1, 1963, Indonesia took control. The territory was renamed West Irian and then Irian Jaya.
Western New Guinea was annexed by Indonesia under the 1969 Act of Free Choice contrary to Article XIV and Article XVIII of the 1962 New York Agreement. During the rule of President Suharto from 1965 to 1998, human rights and other advocates[who?] criticized Indonesian government policies in the province as repressive, and the area received relatively little attention in Indonesia's development plans. During the Reformasi period from 1998 to 2001, Papua and other Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, a law was passed granting "Special Autonomy" status to Papua, although many of the law's requirements have either not been implemented or have been only minimally implemented.[4]
In 2003, the Indonesian central government declared that the province would be split into three provinces: Papua Province, Central Irian Jaya Province, and West Irian Jaya Province. Opposition to this resulted in the plan for Central Irian Jaya province being scrapped, and even the designation of West Irian Jaya Province is still legally unclear. Despite this, the West Irian Jaya (Irian Jaya Barat) province was formed on February 6, 2006, and the name was officially changed to West Papua (Papua Barat) on February 7, 2007. The independent sovereign state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) borders Papua Province to the east.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Netherlands New Guinea
1.2 Incorporation into Indonesia
2 The Act Of Free Choice
3 Indonesian clampdown on independence activities
4 International Parliamentarians for West Papua
5 Regions
6 Geography
7 Demographics
8 Tribes
9 Ecology
10 Culture
11 See also
12 References
13 Notes
14 Further reading
15 External links
History
Papuans have inhabited the Australasian continental island of New Guinea for over 40,000 years while Austronesians have been there for several thousand years. These groups have developed diverse cultures and languages in situ; there are over 300 languages and two hundred additional dialects in West New Guinea alone (See Papuan languages, Austronesian languages).
On June 13, 1545, Ortiz de Retez, in command of the San Juan, left port in Tidore, an island of the East Indies and sailed to reach the northern coast of the island of New Guinea, which he ventured along as far as the mouth of the Mamberamo River. He took possession of the land for the Spanish Crown, in the process giving the island the name by which it is known today. He called it Nueva Guinea owing to the resemblance of the local inhabitants to the peoples of the Guinea coast in West Africa.
Netherlands New Guinea
Dutch expeditions in Netherlands New Guinea 1907–1915.
In 1828, the Dutch claimed the south coast west of the 141st meridian, and in 1848 added the north coast west of Humboldt Bay. The border at 141° East was 'marked' on the coast by iron signpost displaying the Dutch coat of arms by an expedition in 1881[5]. The Netherlands established trading posts in the area after Great Britain and Germany recognised the Dutch claims in treaties of 1885 and 1895. At much the same time, Britain claimed south-east New Guinea, later known as the Territory of Papua, and Germany claimed the northeast, later known as the Territory of New Guinea.
In 1923, the Nieuw Guinea Beweging (New Guinea Movement) was created in the Netherlands by ultra right-wing supporters calling for Dutchmen to create a tropical Netherlands in Papua. This prewar movement without full government support was largely unsuccessful in its drive, but did coincide with the development of a plan for Eurasian settlement of the Dutch Indies to establish Dutch farms in northern West New Guinea. This effort also failed as most returned to Java disillusioned, and by 1938 just 50 settlers remained near Hollandia and 258 in Manokwari.
In the early 1930s, the need for a national Papuan government was discussed by graduates of the Dutch Protestant Missionary Teachers College in Mei Wondama, Manokwari. These graduates continued their discussions among the wider community and quickly succeeded in cultivating a desire for national unity across the region and its three hundred languages. The College Principal Rev. Kijne also composed "Hai Tanahku Papua" ("Oh My Land Papua"), which in 1961 was adopted as the national anthem.
A exploration company NNGPM was formed in 1935 by Shell (40%), Mobil (40%) and Chevron's Far Pacific investments (20%) to explore West New Guinea. During 1936, Jean Dozy working for NNGPM reported the world's richest gold and copper deposits in a mountain near Timika which he named Ertsberg (Mountain of Ore). Unable to license the find from the Dutch or indigenous landowners, NNGPM maintained secrecy of the discovery.
In 1942, the northern coast of West New Guinea and the nearby islands were occupied by Japan. Allied forces expelled the Japanese in 1944, and with Papuan approval, the United States constructed a headquarters for Gen. Douglas MacArthur at Hollandia (now Jayapura) and over twenty US bases and hospitals intended as a staging point for operations taking of the Philippines.
West New Guinean farms supplied food for the half million US troops. Papuan men went into battle to carry the wounded, acted as guides and translators, and provided a range of services, from construction work and carpentry to serving as machine shop workers and mechanics.
The Dutch retained possession of West New Guinea from 1945, but upon reaching Java 4,000 km (2,490 mi) west they did not find similar levels of support from the population of Java. Indonesian leaders Mohammad Hatta and Sukarno had declared independence weeks before and claimed all Dutch possessions should become part of the United States of Indonesia. The dispute continued until the Round Table Conference, which was held from August to October 1949 at the Hague. Unable to reach a compromise on the matter of West New Guinea, the conference closed with the parties agreeing to discuss the West New Guinea issue within one year.
In December 1950[6] the United Nations requested the Special Committee on Decolonization to accept transmission of information regarding the territory in accord with Article 73 of the Charter of the United Nations. Article 73 constituted formal recognition of the territory's right to independence and the Netherlands obligation to assist. After repeated Indonesian claims to possession of Dutch New Guinea, the Netherlands invited Indonesia to present its claim before an International Court of Law. Indonesia declined the offer. Concerned by Indonesian insurgencies beginning in 1950, the Netherlands accelerated its education and technical programs in preparation for independence. A naval academy was opened in 1956, and Papuan troops and naval cadets began service by 1957.
By 1959, Papuans were nurses, dental surgeons, draftsmen, architects, telephone repairmen, and radio and power technicians, cultivating a range of experimental commercial crops and serving as police, forestry and meteorological staff. This progress towards self-government was documented in reports prepared for the United Nations from 1950 to 1961.
Local Council elections were held and Papuan representatives elected from 1955. On 6 March 1959 the New York Times published an article revealing the Dutch government had discovered alluvial gold flowing into the Arafura Sea and were searching for the gold's mountain source.[citation needed] In 1959, Freeport Sulphur approached the Dutch East Borneo company for partnership. An agreement signed in January 1960 to lodge a Dutch claim for the Timika area as a copper deposit did not inform the government about the gold or known extent of the copper deposit.[citation needed]
Election of a national parliament began on 9 January 1961 in fifteen electoral districts with direct voting in Manokwari and Hollandia to select 26 Councillors, of whom 16 were elected, 12 appointed, 23 were Papuan, and one female Councillors. The Councillors were sworn in by Governor Platteel on 1 April 1961, and the Council took office on 5 April 1961. The inauguration was attended by officials from Australia, Britain, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and members of the South Pacific Commission; a large Australian delegation was headed by Mr Hasluck MP and included Sir Alistair McMullan, President of Australian Senate. The United States declined the invitation to attend the inauguration.
After news that the Hague was considering a United States plan to trade the territory to United Nations administration, Papuan Councillors met for six hours in the New Guinea Council building on 19 October 1961 to elect a National Committee which drafted a Manifesto for Independence & Self-government, a National flag (Morning Star), State Seal, selected a national anthem ("Hai Tanahkoe Papua" / "Oh My Land Papua"), and called for the people to be known as Papuans. The New Guinea Council voted unanimous support of these proposals on 30 October 1961, and on the 31st October 1961 presented the Morning Star flag and Manifesto to Governor Platteel who said (translated) "Never before has the oneness of the Council been put forward so strongly." The Dutch recognized the flag and anthem on November 18, 1961 (Government Gazettes of Dutch New Guinea Nos. 68 and 69), and these ordinances came into effect on December 1, 1961.
Incorporation into Indonesia
At the US White House a proposal to have the Netherlands trade West New Guinea to Indonesia was opposed by the Bureau of European Affairs who viewed this "would simply trade white for brown colonialism"; but from April 1961 Robert Komer and McGeorge Bundy promoted a plan to have the United Nations give the transfer an outward appearance of legitimacy. Though reluctant, John Kennedy was told the transfer of the territory was the only means to prevent Indonesia turning to Soviet aid.[7]
The Morning Star, flag of West Papua, was designed by the New Guinea Council in 1961. Its display is prohibited in Indonesia.
The Morning Star flag was raised next to the Dutch tricolour on December 1, 1961, an act which Papuan independence supporters celebrate each year at flag raising ceremonies. National Committee Chairman Mr Inury said: "My Dear compatriots, you are looking at the symbol of our unity and our desire to take our place among the nations of the world. As long as we are not really united we shall not be free. To be united means to work hard for the good of our country, now, until the day that we shall be independent, and further from that day on."
On January 2, 1962, Indonesia, which had made seven known insurgency attempts since 1950, now created the Mandala Command headed by Brig. General Suharto to coordinate military efforts for the territory. Two previous insurgencies, Pasukan Gerilya 100 (November 1960) and Pasukan Gerilya 200 (September 1961), were followed by Pasukan Gerilya 300 with 115 insurgents leaving Jakarta on four Jaguar class torpedo boats (January 15), intercepted in the Aru Sea the lead boat was sunk and 51 survivors were picked up after Commodore Yos Sudarso went down with his boat.[8]
Continuing US efforts to have the Netherlands secretly negotiate the transfer of the territory to Indonesian administration eventually succeeded in creating the "New York Agreement" signed in August 1962. The Australian government, which previously had been a firm supporter of Papuan independence, also reversed its policy to support incorporation with Indonesia.[7][9]
The agreement, ratified in the UN on September 21, 1962, stipulated that authority would transfer to a United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) on 1 October 1962, and that once UNTEA had informed the public of the terms of the Agreement had the option to transfer administration of the territory to Indonesia after May 1, 1963, until such time as an "Act of Free Choice" could determine the will of the people. Under Article 18 of the Agreement "all adults, male and female, not foreign nationals" were to be allowed to vote in an Act "in accordance with international practice". On May 1, 1963, UNTEA transferred total administration of West New Guinea to the Republic of Indonesia. The capital Hollandia was renamed Kota Baru for the transfer to Indonesian administration and on 5 September 1963, West Irian was declared a "quarantine territory" with Foreign Minister Subandrio administrating visitor permits.
The Sukarno-era "West Irian Liberation Statue" in Jakarta.
The Act Of Free Choice
Although United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2504 did acknowledge that an event called Act of Free Choice took place, neither the General Assembly nor International Court of Justice gave their opinion about the event, nor did they claim the Act to have been any form of self determination. Although the United Nations representative Ambassador Fernando Ortiz-Sanz was unable to get Indonesia to allow a "one-man, one-vote" within the territory, the Indonesian authorities declared that there was a unanimous vote against independence. However, participants and other observers question the conduct and legitimacy of the process. It is widely reported that just 1000 tribal elders were allowed by the Indonesian military to vote[10], in direct contravention of Article 18 of the New York Agreement which stated "The eligibility of all adults, male and female, not foreign nationals to participate in the act of self-determination to be carried out in accordance with international practice". As such the vote was not an expression of self-determination. Men who were selected for the vote subsequently testified that they had been blackmailed and threatened at gunpoint into voting against independence with threats of violence against their families and communities. Although Indonesia denies these allegations, recently released United States government correspondence indicates that the pro-Indonesian outcome was effectively agreed in advance between Indonesia and the U.S.[11]
Indonesian clampdown on independence activities
Since the 1960s, consistent reports have filtered out of the territory of government suppression and terrorism, including murder, political assassination, imprisonment, torture, and aerial bombardments. The Indonesian government disbanded the New Guinea Council and forbade the use of the West Papua flag or the singing of the national anthem. There has been considerable resistance to Indonesian integration and occupation, both through civil disobedience (such as Morning Star flag raising ceremonies) and via the formation of the Organisasi Papua Merdeka (OPM, or Free Papua Movement) in 1965. The movement's military arm is the TPN, or Liberation Army of Free Papua. Estimates vary on the death toll, with wild variation in the number claimed dead. A Sydney University academic has estimated more than 100,000 Papuans, one sixteenth of the population, have died as a result of government-sponsored violence against West Papuans,[12] while others had previously specified much higher death tolls.[13]
After General Suharto replaced Sukarno as President of Indonesia, Freeport Sulphur was the first foreign company awarded a mining license, a 30 year license to mine the Tembagapura region of Papua for gold and copper.
In 1969, General Sarwo Edhi Wibowo oversaw the Indonesian conduct of the widely criticized "Act of Free Choice." Prior to the vote, the Indonesian military rounded up and detained for one month a large group of Papuan tribal leaders. The Papuans were daily threatened with death at gunpoint if the entire group did not vote to continue Indonesian rule. Assembled troops and two Western observers acted as witnesses to the public vote; however, the Western observers left after witnessing the first two hundred (of 1,054) votes for integration. Concerned over Communism in South East Asia, and with an eye toward extracting Papua's vast mineral wealth, the US and other Western powers ignored protests over the circumstances surrounding the vote [14] The process was deemed to have been an "Act of Free Choice" in accordance with the United Nations requirements, and Indonesia formally annexed the territory in August. Dissenters mockingly called it the "Act of No Choice" or "Act Free of Choice."
In 1971, construction of the world's largest copper and gold mine (also the world's largest open cut mine) began. Under an Indonesian agreement signed in 1967 (two years before the "Act of Free Choice"), the US company Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc. obtained a 30-year exclusive mining license from Suharto in (dating from the mine's opening in 1973). The pact was extended in 1991 by another 30 years. After 1988 with the opening of the Grasberg mine it became the biggest gold mine and lowest extraction-price copper mine in the world. Locals made several violent attempts to dissuade the mine owners, including sabotage of a pipeline that July, but order was quickly restored.
In the 1970s and 1980s, the Indonesian state accelerated its transmigration program, under which tens of thousands of Javanese and Sumatran migrants were resettled to Papua. Prior to Indonesian rule, the non-indigenous Asian population was estimated at 16,600; while the Papuan population were a mix of Roman Catholics, Protestants and pagan people following tribal religions[15]. Critics suspect that the transmigration program's purpose was to tip the balance of the province's population from the heavily Melanesian Papuans toward western Indonesians, thus further consolidating Indonesian control. The transmigration program officially ended in the late 1990s, although so-called "spontaneous migration" by western Indonesians voluntarily relocating to provinces such as Papua seeking economic opportunity has increased and remains at high levels.[citation needed]
A separatist congress in 2000 again calling for independence resulted in a military crackdown on independence supporters. In 2001, a now-majority Islamic population was given limited autonomy. An August 2001, US State Department travel warning advised "all travel by US and other foreign government officials to Aceh, Papua and the Moluccas (provinces of North Maluku and Maluku) has been restricted by the Indonesian government".
During the Abdurrahman Wahid administration in 2000, Papua gained a "Special Autonomy" status, an attempted political compromise between separatists and the central government that has weak support within the Jakarta government. Despite lack of political will of politicians in Jakarta to proceed with real implementation of the Special Autonomy, which is stipulated by law, the region was divided into two provinces: the province of Papua and the province of West Papua, based on a Presidential Instruction in January 2001, soon after President Wahid was impeached by the Parliament and replaced by Vice President Megawati Sukarnoputri. The division of the province has neither directly cancelled the Law of Special Autonomy of Papua nor engaged ongoing protest in the region. There was brief consideration of dividing the territory into thirds, but the plan was quickly abandoned. The plan again gained support in early 2008.
In January 2006, 43 refugees in a traditional canoe landed on the coast of Australia with a banner stating the Indonesian military was carrying out a genocide in Papua. They were transported to an Australian immigration detention facility on Christmas Island, 2,600 km (1,400 nmi) north-west of Perth, and 360 km (190 nmi) south of the western head of Java. On March 23, 2006, the Australian government granted temporary protection visas to 42 of the 43 having determined all 43 were bonafide refugees.[16] A day later Indonesia recalled its ambassador to Australia.[17] A number of expatriate Papuans currently campaign for independence in Australia, the United Kingdom and other countries, and call for international support for their campaigns. Their claims, which sometimes include allegations of historic or present genocide, are strongly challenged by Indonesia, and Papuan independence is not supported by any recognised government except that of Vanuatu.
International Parliamentarians for West Papua
On October 15 2008, the International Parliamentarians for West Papua was launched at the Houses of Parliament, London[18]. The group was set up by exiled West Papuan independence leader Benny Wenda, and is chaired by the British MP Andrew Smith (politician) and Lord Harries. The group set out aims to develop international parliamentary support for West Papuan self-determination, through "recognising the inalienable right of the indigenous people of West Papua to self-determination, which was violated in the 1969 “Act of Free Choice”[19]. Some of the founding members of the group were also involved in a similar group that was set up for East Timor prior to it gaining independence from Indonesia. So far the group has gathered support from politicians in countries including the United Kingdom, The United States of America, Australia, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea[20].
Regions
Indonesia structures regions by Regencies and districts within those. Though names and areas of control of these regional structures can vary over time in accord with changing political and other requirements, in 2004 Papua province (including what is now West Papua province) consisted of 27 regencies (kabupaten), 2 cities (kotamadya), 117 subdistricts (kecamatan), 66 kelurahan, and 830 villages (desa).
Map of Papua and West Papua Province (before their separation) showing major cities and before designation of new regencies in 2004.
As of 2004, the Regencies in Papua province were: Asmat, Biak Numfor, Boven Digoel, Jayapura, Kota Jayapura, Jayawijaya, Keerom, Mappi, Merauke, Mimika, Nabire, Paniai, Pegunungan Bintang, Puncak Jaya, Sarmi, Supiori, Tolikara, Waropen, Yahukimo, and Yapen Waropen. The Regencies in the same time period for West Papua province were: Fak-Fak, Kaimana, Manokwari, Raja Ampat, Sorong, Kota Sorong, Sorong Selatan, Teluk Bintuni, and Teluk Wondama.
In 2003 the western-most third of Papua province was split into a separate province, called West Irian Jaya, which was itself renamed West Papua province in 2007.
Jayapura, founded in 1910 as Hollandia, had by 1962 developed into a city with modern civil, educational, and medical services. Since Indonesian administration these services have been replaced by Indonesian equivalents such as the TNI (military) replacing the Papuan police force. The name of the city has been changed from Hollandia, to Kotabaru then Sukarnopura and finally Jayapura.
It is the largest city in Western New Guinea, boasting a small but active tourism industry, it is a neat and pleasant city built on a slope overlooking the bay. Cenderawasih University campus houses the Jayapura Museum. Tanjung Ria beach, well-known to the Allies during World War II, is a popular holiday resort now with facilities for water sports, and General Douglas MacArthur's World War II quarters are still intact.
Geography
Land Area
Area 420,540 km2 (162,371 sq mi)
Climate
Rainfall 100 to 10,000 mm (4–400 in)
Temperature 0 to 32 °C (32–90 °F)
Humidity 80%
A central east-west mountain range dominates the geography of New Guinea, over 1,600 km (994 mi) in total length. The western section is around 600 km (373 mi) long and 100 km (62 mi) across. Steep mountains 3,000 to 4,000 m (9,850–13,100 ft) and up to 5,000 m (16,400 ft) high along the range ensures a steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere. The tree line is around 4,000 m (13,100 ft) elevation and the tallest peaks are snowbound year round.
Both north and west of the central ranges the land remains mountainous — mostly 1,000 to 2,000 m (3,300–6,660 ft) high — and covered by thick rain forest with a warm humid climate year round.
The third major habitat feature is the south east lowlands with extensive wetlands stretching for hundreds of kilometers.
The province has 40 major rivers, 12 lakes, and 40 islands. The Mamberamo river, sometimes referred to as the "Amazon of Papua" is the province's largest river which winds through the northern part of the province. The result is a large area of lakes and rivers known as the Lakes Plains region. The vast southern lowlands, which consist of a mosaic of habitats including mangrove, tidal and freshwater swamp forest and lowland rainforest, are home to a dense population of fishermen and gatherers such as the Asmat people. The famous Baliem Valley, home of the Dani people is a tableland 1,600 m (5,250 ft) above sea level in the midst of the central mountain range; Puncak Jaya (formerly Carstensz Pyramid) is a mist covered limestone mountain peak 4,884 m (16,024 ft) above sea level, the highest point in Indonesia.
The border with Papua New Guinea mostly follows the 141st meridian, with one section defined by the Fly River. This border is largely unguarded, and has seen a dramatic amount of refugees and illegal aliens cross over to PNG to flee the Indonesians. There are no reliable estimates on how many have crossed.
Demographics
The combined population of the Indonesian provinces of West Irian Jaya and Papua, constituting all of Western New Guinea, was estimated to be 2,646,489 in 2005. The two largest cities in the territory are Sorong in the northwest of the Bird's Head Peninsula and Jayapura in the northeast. Both cities have a population of approximately 200,000.
As in Papua New Guinea and some surrounding east Indonesian provinces, a large majority of the population is Christian. In the 2000 census 54% of West Papuans identified themselves as Protestant, 24% as Catholic, 21% as Muslim, and less than 1% as either Hindu or Buddhist. There is also substantial practice of animism among the major religions, but this is not recorded by the Indonesian census.
Tribes
Church in Kuala Kencana.
Western New Guinea is home to around 312 different tribes, including some uncontacted peoples.[21] The following are some of the most well-known:
Amungme
Asmat
Bauzi
Biak (Byak)
Damal
Dani
Kamoro
Kombai
Korowai
Lani
Mee
Mek
Nduga
Sawi
Sentani
Yali
Ecology
A vital tropical rainforest with the tallest tropical trees and vast biodiversity, Papua's known forest fauna includes marsupials (including possums, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, cuscus), other mammals (including the endangered long-beaked echidna), many bird species (including birds of paradise, cassowaries, parrots, cockatoos), the world's longest lizards (Papua monitor) and some of the world's largest butterflies.
Animal Group Est. Number
Mammals 180
Marsupial Mammals 70
Birds 700
Endemic Birds 450
Bats 70
The island has an estimated 16,000 species of plant, 124 genera of which are endemic.
The extensive waterways and wetlands of Papua are also home to salt and freshwater crocodile, tree monitor, flying foxes, osprey, bats and other animals; while the equatorial glacier fields remain largely unexplored.
In February 2005, a team of scientists exploring the Foja Mountains discovered numerous new species of birds, butterflies, amphibians, and plants, including a species of rhododendron which may have the largest bloom of the genus.[22]
Ecological dangers include deforestation at an alarming rate; the spread of the exotic Crab-eating Macaque (monkey) which now threatens the existence of many native species; pollution such as Grasberg mine dumping 230 000[23] tonnes of copper and gold tailings into the rivers system each day.
Culture
West Papuans share many affinities with the culture of Papua New Guinea (PNG) to the east. As with PNG, the peoples of the highlands have distinct traditions and languages from peoples of the coasts.
Many aspects of West Papuan culture have been forcibly repressed since the area's 1963 incorporation into the Indonesian state. In 2001 the province was granted special autonomy by the Indonesian government, opening the possibility of increased indigenous cultural production and arts venues.
Some Papuans fear that the history of Indonesian repression, education, propaganda, and transmigration have negatively impacted Papuan cultures. In March 2003 John Rumbiak stated that Papuan culture "will be extinct" within 10 to 20 years, if the present rate of assimilation in the region continues.[24] In response to such criticism the Indonesian government states that the special autonomy arrangement specifically addresses the ongoing preservation of Papua culture, and that the transmigration program was "designed specifically to help the locals through knowledge transfer."[25] Papua advocates view such responses as a continuation of the Indonesian state's tendency to view Papuans as "primitives" in need of "development."[26]
In some parts of the highlands, the koteka is traditionally worn by males in ceremonial contexts. Despite government efforts to suppress it, the use of the koteka as everyday dress by Dani males in Western New Guinea is still very common.
North Maluku
1.6.2 North Maluku
North Maluku
Motto: Marimoi Ngone Futuru (Maluku language)
(United we strong)
Capital
Ternate
Governor
Thayb Armayn
Population
890,000 (2,005 census)
Ethnic groups
Religion
Islam (76%), Christian (23%), others (1%)
Languages
Indonesian (official)
Time zone
WIT (UTC+9)
Web site http://www.malukuutaraprov.go.id
North Maluku (Indonesian: Maluku Utara) is a province of Indonesia. It covers the northern part of the Maluku Islands, which are split between it and the province of Maluku. Maluku province used to cover the entire group. The planned provincial capital is Sofifi, on Halmahera, but the current capital and largest population center is the island of Ternate.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth century, the islands of North Maluku were the original "Spice Islands". At the time, the region was the sole source of cloves. The Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, and local sultanates including Ternate and Tidore fought each other for control of the lucrative trade in these spices. Clove trees have since been transported and replanted all around the world and the demand for clove from the original spice islands has ceased, greatly reducing North Maluku's international importance.
The population of North Maluku is 870,000 (according to the National Socio-Economic Survey, 2004), making it one of the least populous provinces in Indonesia.
Contents
1 Administrative division
1.1 Regencies
1.2 Cities
1.3 Former Sultanates
Administrative division
Regencies
West Halmahera (Jailolo)
Central Halmahera (Soasiu)
South Halmahera (Labuha)
East Halmahera (Maba)
North Halmahera (Tobelo)
Sula Islands (Sanana)
Cities
Ternate
Tidore
Former Sultanates
Sultanate of Ternate
Tidore Sultanate
Bacan Sultanate
Jailolo Sultanate
North Maluku
Motto: Marimoi Ngone Futuru (Maluku language)
(United we strong)
Capital
Ternate
Governor
Thayb Armayn
Population
890,000 (2,005 census)
Ethnic groups
Religion
Islam (76%), Christian (23%), others (1%)
Languages
Indonesian (official)
Time zone
WIT (UTC+9)
Web site http://www.malukuutaraprov.go.id
North Maluku (Indonesian: Maluku Utara) is a province of Indonesia. It covers the northern part of the Maluku Islands, which are split between it and the province of Maluku. Maluku province used to cover the entire group. The planned provincial capital is Sofifi, on Halmahera, but the current capital and largest population center is the island of Ternate.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth century, the islands of North Maluku were the original "Spice Islands". At the time, the region was the sole source of cloves. The Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, and local sultanates including Ternate and Tidore fought each other for control of the lucrative trade in these spices. Clove trees have since been transported and replanted all around the world and the demand for clove from the original spice islands has ceased, greatly reducing North Maluku's international importance.
The population of North Maluku is 870,000 (according to the National Socio-Economic Survey, 2004), making it one of the least populous provinces in Indonesia.
Contents
1 Administrative division
1.1 Regencies
1.2 Cities
1.3 Former Sultanates
Administrative division
Regencies
West Halmahera (Jailolo)
Central Halmahera (Soasiu)
South Halmahera (Labuha)
East Halmahera (Maba)
North Halmahera (Tobelo)
Sula Islands (Sanana)
Cities
Ternate
Tidore
Former Sultanates
Sultanate of Ternate
Tidore Sultanate
Bacan Sultanate
Jailolo Sultanate
Maluku
1.6.1 Maluku
Maluku
Motto: Siwa Lima (Ambonese)
(Belongs together)
Capital
Ambon
Governor
Karel Albert Ralahalu
Population
1,266,000 (2,005 census)
Ethnic groups
Significantly mixed ethnicity; Melanesian, Kei (11%), Ambonese (11%), Buton (11%), Malays, Javanese, Chinese
Religion
Christianity, Islam
Languages
Indonesian, Ambonese, ethnic dialects
Time zone
WIT (UTC+9)
Web site http://www.malukuprov.go.id/
Maluku is a province of Indonesia, comprising, broadly, the southern part of the Maluku Islands (also known as the Moluccas, Molucca Islands or Moluccan Islands), which are culturally and geographically associated with Melanesia.[1]
The main city and capital of Maluku province is Ambon on the small Ambon Island. The province has a population of 1,313,022 (2004).
All the Maluku Islands formed a single province of Indonesia from 1950 until 1999. In 1999 the Maluku Utara Regency and Halmahera Tengah Regency were split off as a separate province of North Maluku.
Contents
1 Regencies and cities
2 List of major islands and island groups in Maluku
3 Chronology of Events of Recent Conflict in Maluku
3.1 January - February 1999
3.2 March - June 1999
3.3 July - December 1999
3.4 January - May 2000
3.5 June - August 2000
4 References
Regencies and cities
Buru (Namlea)
Kepulauan Aru (Dobo)
Maluku Tengah (Masohi)
Maluku Tenggara (Tual)
Maluku Tenggara Barat (Saumlaki)
Seram Bagian Barat (Dataran Hunipopu)
Seram Bagian Timur (Dataran Hunimoa)
Ambon
List of major islands and island groups in Maluku
Ambon Island
Aru Islands (Kepulauan Aru)
Babar Island
Barat Daya Islands (includes Wetar Island)
Banda Islands (Kepulauan Banda)
Buru
Kei Islands
Leti Islands
Makian
Saparua
Seram
Tanimbar Islands (Kepulauan Tanimbar)
See also: Islands of Indonesia
Chronology of Events of Recent Conflict in Maluku
January - February 1999
On Ambon Island, an argument between a Muslim passenger and Christian bus driver on January 19, 1999 developed into a fight that quickly spreads into days of violence with many casualties and much destruction of housing. The fighting quickly spreads to the nearby islands of Haruku, Seram and Saparua because of rumors.
March - June 1999
There is a four-month period of calm during which time Indonesia's first free national and regional elections in 44 years take place largely without violence. May 12, 1999, a peace declaration is signed between religious leaders, community and traditional leaders and youth figures and organizations.
July - December 1999
From July 27, major riots take place with hundreds of shops and homes destroyed. In August fighting breaks out in the newly created province of North Maluku (which until 1999 had been part of Maluku province), primarily due to political and ethnic not religious reasons. The second half of 1999 saw regular fighting across Maluku province with many casualties.
[January - May 2000
January 7, 2000, over 100,000 Muslims demonstrate in Jakarta calling for a jihad in Maluku in order to save the Muslims. In May the Laskar Jihad militia group begin to arrive in Maluku. 4,000 are reported to arrive in the province. Other Islamic militia groups are absorbed into it. Tensions rise within both religious groups. Muslim militias start to try to clear Christian villages out of key transportation corridors.
June - August 2000
On June 27, President Abdurrahman Wahid declares a state of civil emergency, giving the police and military broad new powers. By July 2000 there were approximately 14,000 troops in Maluku. Many of the villages across the bay from Ambon town as well as the main university of Pattiumura are destroyed. There has been large-scale displacement of populations. In August 2000, the Yon Gab, Joint Battalion arrives made up of soldiers from other
Maluku
Motto: Siwa Lima (Ambonese)
(Belongs together)
Capital
Ambon
Governor
Karel Albert Ralahalu
Population
1,266,000 (2,005 census)
Ethnic groups
Significantly mixed ethnicity; Melanesian, Kei (11%), Ambonese (11%), Buton (11%), Malays, Javanese, Chinese
Religion
Christianity, Islam
Languages
Indonesian, Ambonese, ethnic dialects
Time zone
WIT (UTC+9)
Web site http://www.malukuprov.go.id/
Maluku is a province of Indonesia, comprising, broadly, the southern part of the Maluku Islands (also known as the Moluccas, Molucca Islands or Moluccan Islands), which are culturally and geographically associated with Melanesia.[1]
The main city and capital of Maluku province is Ambon on the small Ambon Island. The province has a population of 1,313,022 (2004).
All the Maluku Islands formed a single province of Indonesia from 1950 until 1999. In 1999 the Maluku Utara Regency and Halmahera Tengah Regency were split off as a separate province of North Maluku.
Contents
1 Regencies and cities
2 List of major islands and island groups in Maluku
3 Chronology of Events of Recent Conflict in Maluku
3.1 January - February 1999
3.2 March - June 1999
3.3 July - December 1999
3.4 January - May 2000
3.5 June - August 2000
4 References
Regencies and cities
Buru (Namlea)
Kepulauan Aru (Dobo)
Maluku Tengah (Masohi)
Maluku Tenggara (Tual)
Maluku Tenggara Barat (Saumlaki)
Seram Bagian Barat (Dataran Hunipopu)
Seram Bagian Timur (Dataran Hunimoa)
Ambon
List of major islands and island groups in Maluku
Ambon Island
Aru Islands (Kepulauan Aru)
Babar Island
Barat Daya Islands (includes Wetar Island)
Banda Islands (Kepulauan Banda)
Buru
Kei Islands
Leti Islands
Makian
Saparua
Seram
Tanimbar Islands (Kepulauan Tanimbar)
See also: Islands of Indonesia
Chronology of Events of Recent Conflict in Maluku
January - February 1999
On Ambon Island, an argument between a Muslim passenger and Christian bus driver on January 19, 1999 developed into a fight that quickly spreads into days of violence with many casualties and much destruction of housing. The fighting quickly spreads to the nearby islands of Haruku, Seram and Saparua because of rumors.
March - June 1999
There is a four-month period of calm during which time Indonesia's first free national and regional elections in 44 years take place largely without violence. May 12, 1999, a peace declaration is signed between religious leaders, community and traditional leaders and youth figures and organizations.
July - December 1999
From July 27, major riots take place with hundreds of shops and homes destroyed. In August fighting breaks out in the newly created province of North Maluku (which until 1999 had been part of Maluku province), primarily due to political and ethnic not religious reasons. The second half of 1999 saw regular fighting across Maluku province with many casualties.
[January - May 2000
January 7, 2000, over 100,000 Muslims demonstrate in Jakarta calling for a jihad in Maluku in order to save the Muslims. In May the Laskar Jihad militia group begin to arrive in Maluku. 4,000 are reported to arrive in the province. Other Islamic militia groups are absorbed into it. Tensions rise within both religious groups. Muslim militias start to try to clear Christian villages out of key transportation corridors.
June - August 2000
On June 27, President Abdurrahman Wahid declares a state of civil emergency, giving the police and military broad new powers. By July 2000 there were approximately 14,000 troops in Maluku. Many of the villages across the bay from Ambon town as well as the main university of Pattiumura are destroyed. There has been large-scale displacement of populations. In August 2000, the Yon Gab, Joint Battalion arrives made up of soldiers from other
Maluku Islands
1.6 Maluku Islands
Geography
Location South East Asia
Coordinates 3°9′S 129°23′E3.15°S 129.383°E
Total islands ~1000
Major islands Halmahera, Seram, Buru, Ambon, Ternate, Tidore, Aru Islands, Kai Islands
Area 74,505 km²
Highest point Binaiya (3,027 m)
Country
Indonesia
Provinces Maluku, North Maluku
Demographics
Population 1,895,000 (as of 2000)
Ethnic groups Nuaulu, Manusela
Map by Willem Blaeu (1630)
The Maluku Islands (also known as the Moluccas, Moluccan Islands, the Spice Islands) are an archipelago in Indonesia, and part of the larger Maritime Southeast Asia region. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located east of Sulawesi (Celebes), west of New Guinea, and north of Timor. The islands were also historically known as the "Spice Islands" by the Chinese and Europeans, but this term has also been applied to other islands.
Most of the islands are mountainous, some with active volcanoes, and enjoy a wet climate. The vegetation of the small and narrow islands, encompassed by the sea, is very luxuriant; including rainforests, sago, rice and the famous spices - nutmeg, cloves and mace, among others. Though originally Melanesian,[1] many island populations, especially in the Banda Islands, were killed in the 17th century. A second influx of Austronesian immigrants began in the early 20th century under the Dutch and continued in the Indonesian era.
Politically, the Maluku Islands formed a single province from 1950 until 1999. In 1999 the North Maluku (Maluku Utara) and Halmahera Tengah (Central Halmahera) regency were split off as a separate province, so the islands are now divided between two provinces, Maluku and North Maluku. Between 1999 and 2002 they were known for religious conflicts between Muslims and Christians but have been peaceful in the past years.
Spice Islands most commonly refer to the Maluku Islands (formerly the Moluccas), which lie on the equator, between Sulawesi (Celebes) and New Guinea in what is now Indonesia, and often specifically to the small volcanic Banda Islands, once the only source of mace and nutmeg.
The term has also been used less commonly in reference to other islands known for their spice production, notably the Zanzibar Archipelago off East Africa consisting of Unguja, Mafia and Pemba. These islands were formerly the independent state of Zanzibar but now form a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania.
Contents
1 Geography
2 Etymology
3 History
3.1 Background: "The Spice Islands"
3.2 Early history
3.3 The Portuguese
3.4 The Spanish
3.5 The Dutch
3.6 After Indonesian independence
4 The 1999-2003 inter-communal conflict
5 Geology and ecology
6 Further reading
7 References
7.1 General
7.2 Notes
8 External links
Geography
The Maluku Islands are often described by tourist literature as having 999 islands; they are 90% sea with 77,990 km2 of land, and 776,500 km2 of sea.[2]
North Maluku Province
Ternate, main island
Bacan
Halmahera - at 20,000 km2 is the largest of the Maluku Islands.[3]
Morotai
Obi Islands
Sula Islands
Tidore
Maluku Province
Ambon Island, main island
Aru Islands
Babar Islands
Banda Islands
Buru
Kai Islands
Kisar
Leti Islands
Seram
Tanimbar Islands
Wetar
Etymology
The name Maluku is thought to have been derived from the Arab trader's term for the region, Jazirat al-Muluk ('the island of the kings').[4]
History
Background: "The Spice Islands"
The native Bandanese people traded spices with other Asian nations, such as China, since at least the time of the Roman Empire. With the rise of Islam, the trade became dominated by Muslim traders. One ancient Arabic source appears to know the location of the islands, describing them as fifteen days' sail East from the 'island of Jaba' - presumably Java[citation needed] — but direct evidence of Islam in the archipelago occurs only in the late 1300s, as China's interest in regional maritime dominance waned. With Arabic traders came not just Islam, but a new technique of social organisation, the sultanate, which replaced local councils of rich men (orang kaya) on the more important islands, and proved more effective in dealing with outsiders. (See Ternate & Tidore).
By trading with Muslim merchants, Venice came to monopolise the spice trade in Europe between 1200 and 1500, through its dominance over Mediterranean seaways to ports such as Alexandria, after traditional overland connections were disrupted by Mongols and Turks. The financial incentive to discover an alternative to Venice's monopoly control of this lucrative business was perhaps the single most important factor precipitating Europe's Age of Exploration. Portugal took an early lead charting the route around the southern tip of Africa, securing various bases en route, even discovering the coast of Brazil in the search for favourable southerly currents. Portugal's eventual success and the establishment of its own empire provoked the other maritime powers in Europe—Spain (see Ferdinand Magellan), France, England and the Netherlands—to challenge and overcome the Portuguese position.
Because of the high value that the spices had in Europe and the large incomes that it produced, the Dutch and British were soon involved in conflicts to try to gain a monopoly over the region. The fighting for control over these small islands became very intense with the Dutch even giving the island of Manhattan to the British in exchange for, among other things, a small island that gave the Dutch full control over the Banda archipelago. The Bandanese people lost the most in the fighting with most of the people being either slaughtered or enslaved by the Dutch. Over 6,000 were killed during the Spice Wars.
The goal of reaching the Spice Islands, eventually to be enveloped by the Dutch East Indies Empire, led to the accidental discovery of the West Indies, and lit the fuse of centuries of rivalry between European maritime powers for control of lucrative global markets and resources. The tattered mystique of the Spice Islands finally died when France and Britain successfully smuggled seeds and plants to their own dominions on Mauritius, Grenada and elsewhere, making spices a more commonplace and affordable commodity.
Early history
The earliest archaeological evidence of human occupation of the region is about thirty-two thousand years old, but evidence of even older settlements in Australia may mean that Maluku had earlier visitors. Evidence of increasingly long-distance trading relationships and of more frequent occupation of many islands, begins about ten to fifteen thousand years later. Onyx beads and segments of silver plate used as currency on the Indian subcontinent around 200BC have been unearthed on some of the islands. In addition, local dialects employ derivations of the Malay word then in use for 'silver', in contrast to the term used in wider Melanesian society, which has etymological roots in Chinese, a consequence of the regional trade with China that developed in the 500s and 600s.
Maluku was a cosmopolitan society where spice traders from across the region took residence in settlements, or in nearby enclaves, including Arab and Chinese traders who visited or lived in the region.
The Portuguese
Apart from some relative inconsequential cultural influences, the most significant lasting effects of the Portuguese presence was the disruption and disorganisation of Asian trade, and in eastern Indonesia—including Maluku—the planting of Christianity.[5] The Portuguese had conquered Malacca in the early sixteenth century and their lasting influence was most strongly felt in Maluku and other parts of eastern Indonesia.[4] Following the Portuguese conquest of Malacca in August 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque learned the route to the Banda Islands and other 'Spice Islands', and sent an exploratory expedition of three vessels under the command of António de Abreu, Simão Afonso Bisigudo and Francisco Serrão.[6] On the way to return, Francisco Serrão was shipwrecked at Hitu island (northern Ambon) in 1512. There he established ties with the local ruler who was impressed with his martial skills. The rulers of the competing island states of Ternate and Tidore also sought Portuguese assistance and the Portuguese were welcomed in the area as buyers of food and spices during a lull in the spice trade due to a temporary disruption to Javanese and Malay sailings to the area following the 1511 conflicts in Malacca. The Asian trade soon revived and the Portuguese were never able to dominate the trade.[4]
Allying himself with Ternate, Serrão constructed a fortress on the island and served as the head of a mercenary band of Portuguese warriors under the service of one of two feuding powerful sultans who controlled the spice trade. Such an outpost far from Europe generally only attracted the most desperate and avaricious, such that the feeble attempts at Christianisation, strained relations with Ternate's Muslim ruler.[4] Serrão urged Ferdinand Magellan to join him in Maluku, and gave the explorer information about the Spice Islands. Both Serrão and Magellan, however, perished before they could meet one another.[4] In 1535 King Tabariji was deposed and sent to Goa by the Portuguese. He converted to Christianity and changed his name to Dom Manuel. After being declared innocent of the charges against him he was sent back to reassume his throne, but he died en route in Malacca in 1545. He had, however, bequeathed the island of Ambon to his Portuguese godfather Jordão de Freitas. Following the murder of Sultan Hairun at the hands of the Portuguese, the Ternateans expelled the Portuguese in 1575 after a five-year siege.
The Portuguese first landed in Ambon in 1513, but it became the new centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku following their expulsion from Ternate. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic and anti-Portuguese state under the rule of Sultan Baab Ullah (r. 1570 - 1583) and his son Sultan Said.[7] The Portuguese in Ambon, however, were regularly attacked from native Muslims on the island's northern coast, in particular Hitu, which had trading and religious links with major port cities on Java's north coast. Indeed, the Portuguese never managed to control the local trade in spices, and failed in attempts to establish their authority over the Banda Islands, the nearby centre of nutmeg production.
Following Portuguese missionary work, there have been large Christian communities in eastern Indonesia through to contemporary times, which has contributed to a sense of shared interest with Europeans, particularly among the Ambonese.[7] By the 1560s there were 10,000 Catholics in the area, mostly on Ambon, and by the 1590s there were 50,000 to 60,000, although most of the region surrounding Ambon remained Muslim.[7] The Spaniard Francis Xavier also played an important role in Maluku Christianization (see next section).
Other Portuguese influences include a large number of Indonesian words derived from Portuguese which alongside Malay was the lingua franca up until the early nineteenth century. Contemporary Indonesian words such as pesta ('party'), sabun ('soap'), bendera ('flag'), meja ('table'), Minggu ('Sunday'), all derive from Portuguese. Many family names in Maluku are derived from Portuguese including De lima, Waas, da Costa, Dias, de Fretas, Gonsalves, Mendoza, Rodrigues, and da Silva. Also of part-Portuguese origin are the romantic keroncong ballads sung to a guitar.
The Spanish
The Spanish took control of Ternate and Tidore. Missionary and Catholic Saint, Francis Xavier worked in Maluku in 1546–1547 among the people's of Ambon, Ternate and Morotai (or Moro), and laid the foundations for a permanent mission there.
The Dutch
Main articles: Dutch East India Company and Dutch East Indies
The Dutch arrived in 1599 and reported native discontent with Portuguese attempts to monopolise their traditional trade. After the Ambonese helped the Dutch to construct a fort at Hitu Larna, the Portuguese begun a campaign of retribution against which the Ambonese invited Dutch aid. After 1605 Frederik Houtman became the first Dutch governor of Ambon.
The Dutch East India Company was a company with three obstacles in its way: the Portuguese, controlling the aboriginal populations, and the English. Again smuggling would be the only alternative to a European monopoly. Among other events of the 17th century, the Bandanese attempted independent trade with the English, the East-India Company's response was to decimate the native population of the Banda Islands sending the survivors fleeing to other islands and installing slave labour.
Though other races re-settled the Banda Islands, the rest of Maluku remained uneasy under foreign control and even after the Portuguese had a new trading station at Macassar there were native revolts in 1636 and 1646. Under company control northern Maluka was administered by the Dutch residency of Ternate, and the southern by "Amboyna" (Ambon).
During the Japanese occupation in World War II, the Moluccans fled to the mountains but began a campaign of resistance also known as the South Moluccan Brigade. After the war's end the island's political leaders had successful discussions with the Netherlands about independence. Complicated by Indonesian demands, the Round Table Conference Agreements were signed in 1949 transferring Maluku to Indonesia with mechanisms for the islands to choose or opt out of the new Indonesia. The Agreements granted Moluccans the right to determine their ultimate sovereignty.
After Indonesian independence
With the declaration of a single republic of Indonesia in 1950 to replace the federal state, the South Moluccas (Republik Maluku Selatan, RMS) attempted to secede. This movement was led by Chris Soumokil (former Supreme Prosecutor of the Eastern Indonesia state) and supported by the Moluccan members of the Netherlands special troops. This movement was defeated by the Indonesian army after 17 years of bloody struggle and by special agreement with the Netherlands the troops were transferred to the Netherlands. The commencement of Indonesian transmigration of (mainly Javanese) populations to the outer islands (including Maluku) during the 1960s is thought to have aggravated independence and issues of religious / ethnic politics. There has been occasional ethnic and nationalist violence on the islands.
Maluku is one of the first provinces of Indonesia, proclaimed in 1945 until 1999, when the Maluku Utara and Halmahera Tengah Regencies were split off as a separate province of North Maluku. Its capital is Ternate, on a small island to the west of the large island of Halmahera. The capital of the remaining part of Maluku province remains at Ambon.
The 1999-2003 inter-communal conflict
The situation in much of Maluku became highly unpredictable when religious-nuance conflict erupted in the province in January 1999. The subsequent 18 months were characterized by fighting between largely local groups of Muslims and Christians, the destruction of thousands of houses, the displacement of approximately 500,000 people, the loss of thousands of lives, and the segregation of Muslims and Christians.[8] The following 12 months saw periodic eruptions of violence, which appeared more targeted and premeditated, which helped keep suspicions high and people segregated (although these experiences were generally the norm). In spite of numerous negotiations and the signing of the February 2002 Malino II peace agreement, tensions on Ambon remained high until late 2002. However, the sudden disbanding of Laskar Jihad in October 2002 led to an increasingly stable peace and a series of spontaneous 'mixings' between previously hostile groups. Minor disturbances continued through 2003 but Maluku had returned to general peacefulness by 2004. Many burnt buildings remain however, and some villages have yet to be fully reconstructed.
Geology and ecology
The geology and ecology of the Maluku Islands share much similar history, characteristics and processes with the neighbouring Nusa Tenggara region. There is a long history of geological study of these regions since Indonesian colonial times; however, the geological formation and progression is not fully understood, and theories of the island's geological evolution have changed extensively in recent decades.[9] The Maluku Islands comprise some of the most geologically complex and active regions in the world,[10] resulting from its position at the meeting point of four geological plates and two continental blocks.
The Maluku Islands lie in Wallacea, the region between the Sunda Shelf (part of the Asia block), and the Arafura Shelf (part of the Australian block). Wallacea also encompasses Nusa Tenggara and Sulawesi, and within this region of small islands lies some of the world's deepest seas.[11] Malukan biodiversity and its distribution are affected by various tectonic activities; most of the islands are geologically young, being from 1 million to 15 million years old, and have never been attached to the larger landmasses. The Maluku islands differ from other areas in Indonesia; they contain some of the country's smallest islands, coral island reefs scattered through some of the deepest seas in the world, and no large islands such as Java or Sumatra. Flora and fauna immigration between islands is thus restricted, leading to a high rate of endemic biota evolving.[9]
The ecology of the Maluku Islands has fascinated collectors for centuries; Alfred Wallace's famous book, The Malay Archipelago was the first significant recording of this natural history, and remains one of the most important sources on Indonesian natural history. Maluku is the source of two major historical works of natural history; George Everhard Rumpf wrote the Herbarium Amboinense and the Ambonische Rariatenkamer.[12]
While many ecological problems affect both small islands and large landmasses, small islands suffer their particular problems. Development pressures on small islands are increasing, although their effects are not always anticipated. Although Indonesia is richly endowed with natural resources, the resources of the small islands of Maluku are limited and specialised; furthermore, human resources in particular are limited.[13]
General observations[14] about small islands that can be applied to the Maluku Islands include:[13]
a higher proportion of the landmass will be affected by volcanic activity, earthquakes, landslips, and cyclone damage;
Climates are more likely to be maritime influenced;
Catchment areas are smaller and degree of erosion higher;
A higher proportion of the landmass is made up of coastal areas;
A higher degree of environmental specialisation, including a higher proportion of endemic species in an overall depauperate community;
Societies may retain a strong sense of culture having developed in relative isolation;
Small island populations are more likely to be affected by economic migration.
Geography
Location South East Asia
Coordinates 3°9′S 129°23′E3.15°S 129.383°E
Total islands ~1000
Major islands Halmahera, Seram, Buru, Ambon, Ternate, Tidore, Aru Islands, Kai Islands
Area 74,505 km²
Highest point Binaiya (3,027 m)
Country
Indonesia
Provinces Maluku, North Maluku
Demographics
Population 1,895,000 (as of 2000)
Ethnic groups Nuaulu, Manusela
Map by Willem Blaeu (1630)
The Maluku Islands (also known as the Moluccas, Moluccan Islands, the Spice Islands) are an archipelago in Indonesia, and part of the larger Maritime Southeast Asia region. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located east of Sulawesi (Celebes), west of New Guinea, and north of Timor. The islands were also historically known as the "Spice Islands" by the Chinese and Europeans, but this term has also been applied to other islands.
Most of the islands are mountainous, some with active volcanoes, and enjoy a wet climate. The vegetation of the small and narrow islands, encompassed by the sea, is very luxuriant; including rainforests, sago, rice and the famous spices - nutmeg, cloves and mace, among others. Though originally Melanesian,[1] many island populations, especially in the Banda Islands, were killed in the 17th century. A second influx of Austronesian immigrants began in the early 20th century under the Dutch and continued in the Indonesian era.
Politically, the Maluku Islands formed a single province from 1950 until 1999. In 1999 the North Maluku (Maluku Utara) and Halmahera Tengah (Central Halmahera) regency were split off as a separate province, so the islands are now divided between two provinces, Maluku and North Maluku. Between 1999 and 2002 they were known for religious conflicts between Muslims and Christians but have been peaceful in the past years.
Spice Islands most commonly refer to the Maluku Islands (formerly the Moluccas), which lie on the equator, between Sulawesi (Celebes) and New Guinea in what is now Indonesia, and often specifically to the small volcanic Banda Islands, once the only source of mace and nutmeg.
The term has also been used less commonly in reference to other islands known for their spice production, notably the Zanzibar Archipelago off East Africa consisting of Unguja, Mafia and Pemba. These islands were formerly the independent state of Zanzibar but now form a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania.
Contents
1 Geography
2 Etymology
3 History
3.1 Background: "The Spice Islands"
3.2 Early history
3.3 The Portuguese
3.4 The Spanish
3.5 The Dutch
3.6 After Indonesian independence
4 The 1999-2003 inter-communal conflict
5 Geology and ecology
6 Further reading
7 References
7.1 General
7.2 Notes
8 External links
Geography
The Maluku Islands are often described by tourist literature as having 999 islands; they are 90% sea with 77,990 km2 of land, and 776,500 km2 of sea.[2]
North Maluku Province
Ternate, main island
Bacan
Halmahera - at 20,000 km2 is the largest of the Maluku Islands.[3]
Morotai
Obi Islands
Sula Islands
Tidore
Maluku Province
Ambon Island, main island
Aru Islands
Babar Islands
Banda Islands
Buru
Kai Islands
Kisar
Leti Islands
Seram
Tanimbar Islands
Wetar
Etymology
The name Maluku is thought to have been derived from the Arab trader's term for the region, Jazirat al-Muluk ('the island of the kings').[4]
History
Background: "The Spice Islands"
The native Bandanese people traded spices with other Asian nations, such as China, since at least the time of the Roman Empire. With the rise of Islam, the trade became dominated by Muslim traders. One ancient Arabic source appears to know the location of the islands, describing them as fifteen days' sail East from the 'island of Jaba' - presumably Java[citation needed] — but direct evidence of Islam in the archipelago occurs only in the late 1300s, as China's interest in regional maritime dominance waned. With Arabic traders came not just Islam, but a new technique of social organisation, the sultanate, which replaced local councils of rich men (orang kaya) on the more important islands, and proved more effective in dealing with outsiders. (See Ternate & Tidore).
By trading with Muslim merchants, Venice came to monopolise the spice trade in Europe between 1200 and 1500, through its dominance over Mediterranean seaways to ports such as Alexandria, after traditional overland connections were disrupted by Mongols and Turks. The financial incentive to discover an alternative to Venice's monopoly control of this lucrative business was perhaps the single most important factor precipitating Europe's Age of Exploration. Portugal took an early lead charting the route around the southern tip of Africa, securing various bases en route, even discovering the coast of Brazil in the search for favourable southerly currents. Portugal's eventual success and the establishment of its own empire provoked the other maritime powers in Europe—Spain (see Ferdinand Magellan), France, England and the Netherlands—to challenge and overcome the Portuguese position.
Because of the high value that the spices had in Europe and the large incomes that it produced, the Dutch and British were soon involved in conflicts to try to gain a monopoly over the region. The fighting for control over these small islands became very intense with the Dutch even giving the island of Manhattan to the British in exchange for, among other things, a small island that gave the Dutch full control over the Banda archipelago. The Bandanese people lost the most in the fighting with most of the people being either slaughtered or enslaved by the Dutch. Over 6,000 were killed during the Spice Wars.
The goal of reaching the Spice Islands, eventually to be enveloped by the Dutch East Indies Empire, led to the accidental discovery of the West Indies, and lit the fuse of centuries of rivalry between European maritime powers for control of lucrative global markets and resources. The tattered mystique of the Spice Islands finally died when France and Britain successfully smuggled seeds and plants to their own dominions on Mauritius, Grenada and elsewhere, making spices a more commonplace and affordable commodity.
Early history
The earliest archaeological evidence of human occupation of the region is about thirty-two thousand years old, but evidence of even older settlements in Australia may mean that Maluku had earlier visitors. Evidence of increasingly long-distance trading relationships and of more frequent occupation of many islands, begins about ten to fifteen thousand years later. Onyx beads and segments of silver plate used as currency on the Indian subcontinent around 200BC have been unearthed on some of the islands. In addition, local dialects employ derivations of the Malay word then in use for 'silver', in contrast to the term used in wider Melanesian society, which has etymological roots in Chinese, a consequence of the regional trade with China that developed in the 500s and 600s.
Maluku was a cosmopolitan society where spice traders from across the region took residence in settlements, or in nearby enclaves, including Arab and Chinese traders who visited or lived in the region.
The Portuguese
Apart from some relative inconsequential cultural influences, the most significant lasting effects of the Portuguese presence was the disruption and disorganisation of Asian trade, and in eastern Indonesia—including Maluku—the planting of Christianity.[5] The Portuguese had conquered Malacca in the early sixteenth century and their lasting influence was most strongly felt in Maluku and other parts of eastern Indonesia.[4] Following the Portuguese conquest of Malacca in August 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque learned the route to the Banda Islands and other 'Spice Islands', and sent an exploratory expedition of three vessels under the command of António de Abreu, Simão Afonso Bisigudo and Francisco Serrão.[6] On the way to return, Francisco Serrão was shipwrecked at Hitu island (northern Ambon) in 1512. There he established ties with the local ruler who was impressed with his martial skills. The rulers of the competing island states of Ternate and Tidore also sought Portuguese assistance and the Portuguese were welcomed in the area as buyers of food and spices during a lull in the spice trade due to a temporary disruption to Javanese and Malay sailings to the area following the 1511 conflicts in Malacca. The Asian trade soon revived and the Portuguese were never able to dominate the trade.[4]
Allying himself with Ternate, Serrão constructed a fortress on the island and served as the head of a mercenary band of Portuguese warriors under the service of one of two feuding powerful sultans who controlled the spice trade. Such an outpost far from Europe generally only attracted the most desperate and avaricious, such that the feeble attempts at Christianisation, strained relations with Ternate's Muslim ruler.[4] Serrão urged Ferdinand Magellan to join him in Maluku, and gave the explorer information about the Spice Islands. Both Serrão and Magellan, however, perished before they could meet one another.[4] In 1535 King Tabariji was deposed and sent to Goa by the Portuguese. He converted to Christianity and changed his name to Dom Manuel. After being declared innocent of the charges against him he was sent back to reassume his throne, but he died en route in Malacca in 1545. He had, however, bequeathed the island of Ambon to his Portuguese godfather Jordão de Freitas. Following the murder of Sultan Hairun at the hands of the Portuguese, the Ternateans expelled the Portuguese in 1575 after a five-year siege.
The Portuguese first landed in Ambon in 1513, but it became the new centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku following their expulsion from Ternate. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic and anti-Portuguese state under the rule of Sultan Baab Ullah (r. 1570 - 1583) and his son Sultan Said.[7] The Portuguese in Ambon, however, were regularly attacked from native Muslims on the island's northern coast, in particular Hitu, which had trading and religious links with major port cities on Java's north coast. Indeed, the Portuguese never managed to control the local trade in spices, and failed in attempts to establish their authority over the Banda Islands, the nearby centre of nutmeg production.
Following Portuguese missionary work, there have been large Christian communities in eastern Indonesia through to contemporary times, which has contributed to a sense of shared interest with Europeans, particularly among the Ambonese.[7] By the 1560s there were 10,000 Catholics in the area, mostly on Ambon, and by the 1590s there were 50,000 to 60,000, although most of the region surrounding Ambon remained Muslim.[7] The Spaniard Francis Xavier also played an important role in Maluku Christianization (see next section).
Other Portuguese influences include a large number of Indonesian words derived from Portuguese which alongside Malay was the lingua franca up until the early nineteenth century. Contemporary Indonesian words such as pesta ('party'), sabun ('soap'), bendera ('flag'), meja ('table'), Minggu ('Sunday'), all derive from Portuguese. Many family names in Maluku are derived from Portuguese including De lima, Waas, da Costa, Dias, de Fretas, Gonsalves, Mendoza, Rodrigues, and da Silva. Also of part-Portuguese origin are the romantic keroncong ballads sung to a guitar.
The Spanish
The Spanish took control of Ternate and Tidore. Missionary and Catholic Saint, Francis Xavier worked in Maluku in 1546–1547 among the people's of Ambon, Ternate and Morotai (or Moro), and laid the foundations for a permanent mission there.
The Dutch
Main articles: Dutch East India Company and Dutch East Indies
The Dutch arrived in 1599 and reported native discontent with Portuguese attempts to monopolise their traditional trade. After the Ambonese helped the Dutch to construct a fort at Hitu Larna, the Portuguese begun a campaign of retribution against which the Ambonese invited Dutch aid. After 1605 Frederik Houtman became the first Dutch governor of Ambon.
The Dutch East India Company was a company with three obstacles in its way: the Portuguese, controlling the aboriginal populations, and the English. Again smuggling would be the only alternative to a European monopoly. Among other events of the 17th century, the Bandanese attempted independent trade with the English, the East-India Company's response was to decimate the native population of the Banda Islands sending the survivors fleeing to other islands and installing slave labour.
Though other races re-settled the Banda Islands, the rest of Maluku remained uneasy under foreign control and even after the Portuguese had a new trading station at Macassar there were native revolts in 1636 and 1646. Under company control northern Maluka was administered by the Dutch residency of Ternate, and the southern by "Amboyna" (Ambon).
During the Japanese occupation in World War II, the Moluccans fled to the mountains but began a campaign of resistance also known as the South Moluccan Brigade. After the war's end the island's political leaders had successful discussions with the Netherlands about independence. Complicated by Indonesian demands, the Round Table Conference Agreements were signed in 1949 transferring Maluku to Indonesia with mechanisms for the islands to choose or opt out of the new Indonesia. The Agreements granted Moluccans the right to determine their ultimate sovereignty.
After Indonesian independence
With the declaration of a single republic of Indonesia in 1950 to replace the federal state, the South Moluccas (Republik Maluku Selatan, RMS) attempted to secede. This movement was led by Chris Soumokil (former Supreme Prosecutor of the Eastern Indonesia state) and supported by the Moluccan members of the Netherlands special troops. This movement was defeated by the Indonesian army after 17 years of bloody struggle and by special agreement with the Netherlands the troops were transferred to the Netherlands. The commencement of Indonesian transmigration of (mainly Javanese) populations to the outer islands (including Maluku) during the 1960s is thought to have aggravated independence and issues of religious / ethnic politics. There has been occasional ethnic and nationalist violence on the islands.
Maluku is one of the first provinces of Indonesia, proclaimed in 1945 until 1999, when the Maluku Utara and Halmahera Tengah Regencies were split off as a separate province of North Maluku. Its capital is Ternate, on a small island to the west of the large island of Halmahera. The capital of the remaining part of Maluku province remains at Ambon.
The 1999-2003 inter-communal conflict
The situation in much of Maluku became highly unpredictable when religious-nuance conflict erupted in the province in January 1999. The subsequent 18 months were characterized by fighting between largely local groups of Muslims and Christians, the destruction of thousands of houses, the displacement of approximately 500,000 people, the loss of thousands of lives, and the segregation of Muslims and Christians.[8] The following 12 months saw periodic eruptions of violence, which appeared more targeted and premeditated, which helped keep suspicions high and people segregated (although these experiences were generally the norm). In spite of numerous negotiations and the signing of the February 2002 Malino II peace agreement, tensions on Ambon remained high until late 2002. However, the sudden disbanding of Laskar Jihad in October 2002 led to an increasingly stable peace and a series of spontaneous 'mixings' between previously hostile groups. Minor disturbances continued through 2003 but Maluku had returned to general peacefulness by 2004. Many burnt buildings remain however, and some villages have yet to be fully reconstructed.
Geology and ecology
The geology and ecology of the Maluku Islands share much similar history, characteristics and processes with the neighbouring Nusa Tenggara region. There is a long history of geological study of these regions since Indonesian colonial times; however, the geological formation and progression is not fully understood, and theories of the island's geological evolution have changed extensively in recent decades.[9] The Maluku Islands comprise some of the most geologically complex and active regions in the world,[10] resulting from its position at the meeting point of four geological plates and two continental blocks.
The Maluku Islands lie in Wallacea, the region between the Sunda Shelf (part of the Asia block), and the Arafura Shelf (part of the Australian block). Wallacea also encompasses Nusa Tenggara and Sulawesi, and within this region of small islands lies some of the world's deepest seas.[11] Malukan biodiversity and its distribution are affected by various tectonic activities; most of the islands are geologically young, being from 1 million to 15 million years old, and have never been attached to the larger landmasses. The Maluku islands differ from other areas in Indonesia; they contain some of the country's smallest islands, coral island reefs scattered through some of the deepest seas in the world, and no large islands such as Java or Sumatra. Flora and fauna immigration between islands is thus restricted, leading to a high rate of endemic biota evolving.[9]
The ecology of the Maluku Islands has fascinated collectors for centuries; Alfred Wallace's famous book, The Malay Archipelago was the first significant recording of this natural history, and remains one of the most important sources on Indonesian natural history. Maluku is the source of two major historical works of natural history; George Everhard Rumpf wrote the Herbarium Amboinense and the Ambonische Rariatenkamer.[12]
While many ecological problems affect both small islands and large landmasses, small islands suffer their particular problems. Development pressures on small islands are increasing, although their effects are not always anticipated. Although Indonesia is richly endowed with natural resources, the resources of the small islands of Maluku are limited and specialised; furthermore, human resources in particular are limited.[13]
General observations[14] about small islands that can be applied to the Maluku Islands include:[13]
a higher proportion of the landmass will be affected by volcanic activity, earthquakes, landslips, and cyclone damage;
Climates are more likely to be maritime influenced;
Catchment areas are smaller and degree of erosion higher;
A higher proportion of the landmass is made up of coastal areas;
A higher degree of environmental specialisation, including a higher proportion of endemic species in an overall depauperate community;
Societies may retain a strong sense of culture having developed in relative isolation;
Small island populations are more likely to be affected by economic migration.
South East Sulawesi
1.5.6 South East Sulawesi
South East Sulawesi
Sulawesi Tenggara
Capital
Kendari
Governor
Nur Alam
Area
38,140 km2 (14,726 sq mi)
Population
1,771,951 (2000)
Density
46.5 /km2 (120 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Religion
Languages
Time zone
UTC+8
Web site www.sultra.go.id
South East Sulawesi (Indonesian: Sulawesi Tenggara) is a province of Indonesia on the island of Sulawesi. The capital of the province is Kendari, on the east coast of the peninsula.
The province is one of the most remote regions of Sulawesi; no highway connects it to the cities on the rest of the island, so the primary transportation link is a ferry across the Bone Sea between Watampone (Bone) in South Sulawesi and the port of Kolaka.
The population of the province is 1,771,951 (As of 2000 census), most of which is centred on Buton island off the south coast of Sulawesi, and in and around Kendari.
From the seventeenth century until the early twentieth century, the region was the site of the Buton sultanate (Butung).
Ethnic groups
The main ethnic groups in South East Sulawesi are "Tolaki", "Buton", "Muna" etc.
Regencies
South East Sulawesi is divided into two cities and several regencies (seat):
Bombana Regency (Rumbia)
Buton Regency (Bau-Bau)
Kolaka Regency (Kolaka)
North Kolaka Regency (Lasusua)
Konawe Regency (Unaaha)
South Konawe Regency (Andolo)
Muna Regency (Raha)
Wakatobi (Wangi-Wangi)
North Buton Regency (Burangga)
North Konawe Regency (Wanggudu)
And cities:
Kendari
Bau-Bau
South East Sulawesi
Sulawesi Tenggara
Capital
Kendari
Governor
Nur Alam
Area
38,140 km2 (14,726 sq mi)
Population
1,771,951 (2000)
Density
46.5 /km2 (120 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Religion
Languages
Time zone
UTC+8
Web site www.sultra.go.id
South East Sulawesi (Indonesian: Sulawesi Tenggara) is a province of Indonesia on the island of Sulawesi. The capital of the province is Kendari, on the east coast of the peninsula.
The province is one of the most remote regions of Sulawesi; no highway connects it to the cities on the rest of the island, so the primary transportation link is a ferry across the Bone Sea between Watampone (Bone) in South Sulawesi and the port of Kolaka.
The population of the province is 1,771,951 (As of 2000 census), most of which is centred on Buton island off the south coast of Sulawesi, and in and around Kendari.
From the seventeenth century until the early twentieth century, the region was the site of the Buton sultanate (Butung).
Ethnic groups
The main ethnic groups in South East Sulawesi are "Tolaki", "Buton", "Muna" etc.
Regencies
South East Sulawesi is divided into two cities and several regencies (seat):
Bombana Regency (Rumbia)
Buton Regency (Bau-Bau)
Kolaka Regency (Kolaka)
North Kolaka Regency (Lasusua)
Konawe Regency (Unaaha)
South Konawe Regency (Andolo)
Muna Regency (Raha)
Wakatobi (Wangi-Wangi)
North Buton Regency (Burangga)
North Konawe Regency (Wanggudu)
And cities:
Kendari
Bau-Bau
West Sulawesi
1.5.4 West Sulawesi
West Sulawesi
Sulawesi Barat
Motto: Mellete Diatonganan
(Following the truth)
Capital
Mamuju
Governor
Anwar Adnan Saleh
Area
16,796.19 km2 (6,485 sq mi)
Population
938,254
Density
55.9 /km2 (145 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Mandar (50%), Toraja (14%), Buginese (10%) [1]
Religion
Islam (83.1%), Christianity (14.36%), Hindu (1.88%), Buddhism (0.04%)
Languages
Indonesian, Mandar, Toraja, Bugis, Makkasar
Time zone
UTC+8
Web site www.sulbarprov.go.id
West Sulawesi (Indonesian: Sulawesi Barat, short form Sulbar) is a province of Indonesia, created in 2004. It is on the island of Sulawesi (formerly, Celebes) and includes the regencies (kabupaten) of Polewali Mandar, Mamasa, Majene, Mamuju, and Mamuju Utara, which were formerly part of South Sulawesi. The area of the province is 16,796.19 km2. Its economy consists mainly of mining, agriculture and fishing. Its capital is Mamuju.
Administrative Divisions
West Sulawesi is divided into the following regencies:
Majene Regency
Mamasa Regency
Mamuju Regency
North Mamuju Regency
Polewali Mandar Regency
1.5.5 South Sulawesi
South Sulawesi
Sulawesi Selatan
Motto: Todo Poli
(Keep the faith)
Capital
Makassar
Governor
Syahrul Yasin Limpo
Area
72,781 km2 (28,101 sq mi)
Population
7,497,701 (2005)[1]
Density
103 /km2 (270 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Bugis (42%), Makassar (25%), Toraja, Mandar
Religion
Mostly muslims
Languages
Buginese
Time zone
UTC+8
Web site www.sulsel.go.id
Mountains in South Sulawesi.
South Sulawesi (Indonesian: Sulawesi Selatan, short form Sulsel) is a province of Indonesia, located on the western southern peninsula of Sulawesi island. The province is bordered by Central Sulawesi province to the north, South East Sulawesi province to the east and West Sulawesi province to the west (West Sulawesi province was split from South Sulawesi in 2004). The capital of South Sulawesi is Makassar.
Contents
1 Administrative
1.1 Regencies
1.2 Cities
2 References
Administrative
Regencies
South Sulawesi is divided into following regencies with their capitals.
Bantaeng Regency (Bantaeng)
Barru Regency (Barru)
Bone Regency (Watampone)
Bulukumba Regency (Bulukumba)
Enrekang Regency (Enrekang)
Gowa Regency (Sungguminasa)
Jeneponto Regency (Jeneponto)
Luwu Regency (Palopo)
East Luwu Regency (Malili)
North Luwu Regency (Masamba)
Maros Regency (Maros)
Pangkajene Islands Regency (Pangkajene)
Pinrang Regency (Pinrang)
Selayar Regency (Bantaeng)
Sinjai Regency (Sinjai)
Sidenreng Rappang Regency (Sidenreng)
Soppeng Regency (Watansoppeng)
Takalar Regency (Takalar)
Tana Toraja (Makale)
Wajo Regency (Sengkang)
Cities
Makassar
Palopo
Pare-Pare
West Sulawesi
Sulawesi Barat
Motto: Mellete Diatonganan
(Following the truth)
Capital
Mamuju
Governor
Anwar Adnan Saleh
Area
16,796.19 km2 (6,485 sq mi)
Population
938,254
Density
55.9 /km2 (145 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Mandar (50%), Toraja (14%), Buginese (10%) [1]
Religion
Islam (83.1%), Christianity (14.36%), Hindu (1.88%), Buddhism (0.04%)
Languages
Indonesian, Mandar, Toraja, Bugis, Makkasar
Time zone
UTC+8
Web site www.sulbarprov.go.id
West Sulawesi (Indonesian: Sulawesi Barat, short form Sulbar) is a province of Indonesia, created in 2004. It is on the island of Sulawesi (formerly, Celebes) and includes the regencies (kabupaten) of Polewali Mandar, Mamasa, Majene, Mamuju, and Mamuju Utara, which were formerly part of South Sulawesi. The area of the province is 16,796.19 km2. Its economy consists mainly of mining, agriculture and fishing. Its capital is Mamuju.
Administrative Divisions
West Sulawesi is divided into the following regencies:
Majene Regency
Mamasa Regency
Mamuju Regency
North Mamuju Regency
Polewali Mandar Regency
1.5.5 South Sulawesi
South Sulawesi
Sulawesi Selatan
Motto: Todo Poli
(Keep the faith)
Capital
Makassar
Governor
Syahrul Yasin Limpo
Area
72,781 km2 (28,101 sq mi)
Population
7,497,701 (2005)[1]
Density
103 /km2 (270 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Bugis (42%), Makassar (25%), Toraja, Mandar
Religion
Mostly muslims
Languages
Buginese
Time zone
UTC+8
Web site www.sulsel.go.id
Mountains in South Sulawesi.
South Sulawesi (Indonesian: Sulawesi Selatan, short form Sulsel) is a province of Indonesia, located on the western southern peninsula of Sulawesi island. The province is bordered by Central Sulawesi province to the north, South East Sulawesi province to the east and West Sulawesi province to the west (West Sulawesi province was split from South Sulawesi in 2004). The capital of South Sulawesi is Makassar.
Contents
1 Administrative
1.1 Regencies
1.2 Cities
2 References
Administrative
Regencies
South Sulawesi is divided into following regencies with their capitals.
Bantaeng Regency (Bantaeng)
Barru Regency (Barru)
Bone Regency (Watampone)
Bulukumba Regency (Bulukumba)
Enrekang Regency (Enrekang)
Gowa Regency (Sungguminasa)
Jeneponto Regency (Jeneponto)
Luwu Regency (Palopo)
East Luwu Regency (Malili)
North Luwu Regency (Masamba)
Maros Regency (Maros)
Pangkajene Islands Regency (Pangkajene)
Pinrang Regency (Pinrang)
Selayar Regency (Bantaeng)
Sinjai Regency (Sinjai)
Sidenreng Rappang Regency (Sidenreng)
Soppeng Regency (Watansoppeng)
Takalar Regency (Takalar)
Tana Toraja (Makale)
Wajo Regency (Sengkang)
Cities
Makassar
Palopo
Pare-Pare
Central Sulawesi
1.5.3 Central Sulawesi
Central Sulawesi
Capital
Palu
Governor
Bandjela Paliudju
Area
68,089.83 km2 (26,290 sq mi)
Population
2,066,394 (2000)
Density
30.3 /km2 (78 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Butung (23%), Bugis (19%), Tolaki (16%), Muna (15%)
Religion
Christianity, Islam, Hindu
Languages
Indonesian (official)
Time zone
WITA (UTC+8)
Web site www.sulteng.go.id
Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah) is a province of Indonesia located in the heart of Sulawesi. It was established on April 13, 1964.
Central Sulawesi has an area of 68,033 km2 (26,268 sq mi) and is surrounded by Gorontalo in the north, South Sulawesi and South East Sulawesi in the south, Maluku in the east, and the Makassar Strait in the west.
Contents
1 Regencies
2 Cities
3 Population
4 Climate and Natural Environment
4.1 Climate
4.2 Natural Environment
5 See also
Regencies
The Central Sulawesi province is divided into several regencies and one municipality:
Banggai
Banggai Island
Buol Regency
Donggala Regency
Morowali
Parigi Moutong
Poso Regency
Tojo Una-Una
Toli-Toli (Tolitoli)
Palu (municipality)
Cities
Palu is the province's capital. Major cities are:
Ampana
Banggai
Bungku
Buol
Donggala
Kolonodale
Luwuk
Parigi
Poso
Toli-toli
Population
Year Population Density
1990 1,711,327 25
1995 1,938,071 28
2000 2,218,435 35
Population growth between 1990 and 2000: 2.57%
Climate and Natural Environment
Climate
Minimum temperatures: 19.80- 22.60°C
Maximum temperatures: 34.00- 37.00°C
Humidity: 78 - 83%
Natural Environment
In the highlands several kilometers south of Palu, the Lore Lindu National Park was established. It is one of the little disturbed core areas of the global Wallacea biodiversity "hotspot".
Central Sulawesi
Capital
Palu
Governor
Bandjela Paliudju
Area
68,089.83 km2 (26,290 sq mi)
Population
2,066,394 (2000)
Density
30.3 /km2 (78 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Butung (23%), Bugis (19%), Tolaki (16%), Muna (15%)
Religion
Christianity, Islam, Hindu
Languages
Indonesian (official)
Time zone
WITA (UTC+8)
Web site www.sulteng.go.id
Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah) is a province of Indonesia located in the heart of Sulawesi. It was established on April 13, 1964.
Central Sulawesi has an area of 68,033 km2 (26,268 sq mi) and is surrounded by Gorontalo in the north, South Sulawesi and South East Sulawesi in the south, Maluku in the east, and the Makassar Strait in the west.
Contents
1 Regencies
2 Cities
3 Population
4 Climate and Natural Environment
4.1 Climate
4.2 Natural Environment
5 See also
Regencies
The Central Sulawesi province is divided into several regencies and one municipality:
Banggai
Banggai Island
Buol Regency
Donggala Regency
Morowali
Parigi Moutong
Poso Regency
Tojo Una-Una
Toli-Toli (Tolitoli)
Palu (municipality)
Cities
Palu is the province's capital. Major cities are:
Ampana
Banggai
Bungku
Buol
Donggala
Kolonodale
Luwuk
Parigi
Poso
Toli-toli
Population
Year Population Density
1990 1,711,327 25
1995 1,938,071 28
2000 2,218,435 35
Population growth between 1990 and 2000: 2.57%
Climate and Natural Environment
Climate
Minimum temperatures: 19.80- 22.60°C
Maximum temperatures: 34.00- 37.00°C
Humidity: 78 - 83%
Natural Environment
In the highlands several kilometers south of Palu, the Lore Lindu National Park was established. It is one of the little disturbed core areas of the global Wallacea biodiversity "hotspot".
Gorontalo
1.5.2 Gorontalo
Provinsi Gorontalo
Province of Gorontalo
Motto: Duluo Limo Lo Pohalaa (Gorontalo)
(The land of Medina's gate)
Capital
Gorontalo
Governor
Fadel Muhammad
Area
12,215.44 km2 (4,716 sq mi)
Population
830,200 (2000)[1]
Density
68 /km2 (180 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Gorontalonese
Religion
Islam (predominantly)
Languages
Indonesian (official), Gorontalo
Time zone
UTC+8
Web site gorontaloprov.go.id
The Kwandang area.
Gorontalo is a province of Indonesia on the northern part of Sulawesi island. Gorontalo province was established in December 2000 after splitting from North Sulawesi province.[2] The capital is the city with the same name, Gorontalo.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Geography
3 History
3.1 Pre-Independence
3.2 Independence
3.3 Post Independence of Indonesia
3.4 Become Province
4 Administration
5 References
Etymology
There are various opinions concerning the origin of the name Gorontalo. [3]:
derives from Hulontalangio, a name of a tribe that resided in the area
derives from Hua Lolontalango, which means cavemen who used to walk back and forth
derives from Hulutalangi, which means nobler
derives from Huluo Lo Tola, which means a place where snakehead fish breed
derives from Pongolatalo or Pohulatalo, which means: a waiting place
derives fron Gunung Telu, which means three mountains
derives from Hunto, which means a place that is always flowed by water
Geography
Gorontalo province lies on the northern Sulawesi arm, known as the Minahassa Peninsula. The province has an elongated shape area , stretching from west to east almost horizontally on a map, with the total area of 12,215.44 km2 (4,716.41 sq mi).[4] To the north and the south of the province are Sulawesi Sea and Gulf of Tomini, respectively. Prior 2000, Gorontalo province was part of North Sulawesi province on the eastern border.[2] The western border of the province is Central Sulawesi province.
Topography of the province is relatively low (0—40o), with the elevation ranges between 0—2,400 m (7,874.02 ft) above the sea level. Its coastline length is more than 590 km (366.61 mi). Counting the Exclusive Economic Zone to the north where Philippines is at the border, the total sea area of the province is more than 50,500 km2 (19,498.16 sq mi).[4] There are some small islands around the north and the south of the province, 67 of which have been identification and are named.[4]
History
Pre-Independence
In 1525, three small rock forts were built overlooking the waters of Lake Limboto with Portuguese assistance. Still in place today, the Fort Otonaha complex has commanding views.
The Spanish also entered the area in limited numbers via the Philippines during the mid-1500s. They introduced corn, tomatoes, chilli peppers, horses, and the afternoon siesta to Gorontalo, all of which are an integral part life today.
The Dutch under the aegis of the United East India Company (VOC) worked to wrest control of the lucrative spice trade away from the Sultanate of Ternate and push out all other European competitors. Gradually, the Dutch gained political control here and ended the power of the local kings.
Independence
The people of Gorontalo achieved independence from Dutch rule in 1942. This was partly through the efforts of the guerrilla/freedom fighter and local hero Nani Wartabone, who forced out the occupying Japanese during World War II.
Since the city escaped Allied bombing during the war, a number of Dutch-era buildings are still standing. Although many are in poor repair, Gorontalo City has a distinctive colonial appearance.
Post Independence of Indonesia
After Indonesia proclaimed its independence, Gorontalo became part of North Sulawesi province
Become Province
Gorontalo secede from North Sulawesi province in 2000
Administration
The governor and vice-governor, who are elected directly by the people, head the provincial administration. The province is divided into five regencies (Indonesian: kabupaten) and only one city (Indonesian: kota). When it was established in 2000, there were only two regencies and one city in the province. Several splitting of regencies occurred in 2003 and 2007, and as of 2007, the list of regencies and cities in Gorontalo province is given in the table below.
Name
Capital
Est.
Statute
Area (km²)
Regency of Boalemo
Tilamuta
1999 UU 50/1999 2,517.36
Regency of Bone Bolango
Suwawa
2003 UU 6/2003 1,984.31
Regency of Gorontalo
Limboto
1959 UU 29/1959 1,728.52
Regency of Pohuwato
Marisa
2003 UU 6/2003 4,244.31
Regency of North Gorontalo
Kwandang
2007 UU 11/2007 1,676.15
City of Gorontalo
* 1959 UU 29/1959 64.79
Note: * A city and also the provincial capital.
Provinsi Gorontalo
Province of Gorontalo
Motto: Duluo Limo Lo Pohalaa (Gorontalo)
(The land of Medina's gate)
Capital
Gorontalo
Governor
Fadel Muhammad
Area
12,215.44 km2 (4,716 sq mi)
Population
830,200 (2000)[1]
Density
68 /km2 (180 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Gorontalonese
Religion
Islam (predominantly)
Languages
Indonesian (official), Gorontalo
Time zone
UTC+8
Web site gorontaloprov.go.id
The Kwandang area.
Gorontalo is a province of Indonesia on the northern part of Sulawesi island. Gorontalo province was established in December 2000 after splitting from North Sulawesi province.[2] The capital is the city with the same name, Gorontalo.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Geography
3 History
3.1 Pre-Independence
3.2 Independence
3.3 Post Independence of Indonesia
3.4 Become Province
4 Administration
5 References
Etymology
There are various opinions concerning the origin of the name Gorontalo. [3]:
derives from Hulontalangio, a name of a tribe that resided in the area
derives from Hua Lolontalango, which means cavemen who used to walk back and forth
derives from Hulutalangi, which means nobler
derives from Huluo Lo Tola, which means a place where snakehead fish breed
derives from Pongolatalo or Pohulatalo, which means: a waiting place
derives fron Gunung Telu, which means three mountains
derives from Hunto, which means a place that is always flowed by water
Geography
Gorontalo province lies on the northern Sulawesi arm, known as the Minahassa Peninsula. The province has an elongated shape area , stretching from west to east almost horizontally on a map, with the total area of 12,215.44 km2 (4,716.41 sq mi).[4] To the north and the south of the province are Sulawesi Sea and Gulf of Tomini, respectively. Prior 2000, Gorontalo province was part of North Sulawesi province on the eastern border.[2] The western border of the province is Central Sulawesi province.
Topography of the province is relatively low (0—40o), with the elevation ranges between 0—2,400 m (7,874.02 ft) above the sea level. Its coastline length is more than 590 km (366.61 mi). Counting the Exclusive Economic Zone to the north where Philippines is at the border, the total sea area of the province is more than 50,500 km2 (19,498.16 sq mi).[4] There are some small islands around the north and the south of the province, 67 of which have been identification and are named.[4]
History
Pre-Independence
In 1525, three small rock forts were built overlooking the waters of Lake Limboto with Portuguese assistance. Still in place today, the Fort Otonaha complex has commanding views.
The Spanish also entered the area in limited numbers via the Philippines during the mid-1500s. They introduced corn, tomatoes, chilli peppers, horses, and the afternoon siesta to Gorontalo, all of which are an integral part life today.
The Dutch under the aegis of the United East India Company (VOC) worked to wrest control of the lucrative spice trade away from the Sultanate of Ternate and push out all other European competitors. Gradually, the Dutch gained political control here and ended the power of the local kings.
Independence
The people of Gorontalo achieved independence from Dutch rule in 1942. This was partly through the efforts of the guerrilla/freedom fighter and local hero Nani Wartabone, who forced out the occupying Japanese during World War II.
Since the city escaped Allied bombing during the war, a number of Dutch-era buildings are still standing. Although many are in poor repair, Gorontalo City has a distinctive colonial appearance.
Post Independence of Indonesia
After Indonesia proclaimed its independence, Gorontalo became part of North Sulawesi province
Become Province
Gorontalo secede from North Sulawesi province in 2000
Administration
The governor and vice-governor, who are elected directly by the people, head the provincial administration. The province is divided into five regencies (Indonesian: kabupaten) and only one city (Indonesian: kota). When it was established in 2000, there were only two regencies and one city in the province. Several splitting of regencies occurred in 2003 and 2007, and as of 2007, the list of regencies and cities in Gorontalo province is given in the table below.
Name
Capital
Est.
Statute
Area (km²)
Regency of Boalemo
Tilamuta
1999 UU 50/1999 2,517.36
Regency of Bone Bolango
Suwawa
2003 UU 6/2003 1,984.31
Regency of Gorontalo
Limboto
1959 UU 29/1959 1,728.52
Regency of Pohuwato
Marisa
2003 UU 6/2003 4,244.31
Regency of North Gorontalo
Kwandang
2007 UU 11/2007 1,676.15
City of Gorontalo
* 1959 UU 29/1959 64.79
Note: * A city and also the provincial capital.
North Sulawesi
1.5.1 North Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
Motto: Si Tou Timou Tumou Tou (Minahasan)
(Human purpose in life is to nurture and educate others)
Capital
Manado
Governor
Sinyo Harry Sarundajang
Area
15,364 km2 (5,932 sq mi)
Population
2,154,234 (2006)[1]
Density
140.2 /km2 (363 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Minahasan, Bolaang Mongondow, Sangir, Talaud
Religion
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism
Languages
Indonesian (official)
Time zone
WITA (UTC+8)
Web site www.sulut.go.id
North Sulawesi (Indonesian: Sulawesi Utara) is a province of Indonesia. It is on the island of Sulawesi, and borders the province of Gorontalo to the west (originally a part of North Sulawesi until 2001 when it became its own province). The islands of Sangihe and Talaud form the northern part of the province, which border the Philippines.
The capital and largest city in North Sulawesi is Manado. With a population of about 2 million (As of 2006[1]), the region is predominantly Christian (70%) with Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist minorities, which is an exception in this predominantly Muslim country. The largest ethnic group is Minahasan.
Contents
1 Administrative areas
2 Places of Interest
3 Newspaper
4 References
5 External links
Administrative areas
North Sulawesi is divided into nine regencies (Indonesian: kabupaten) and four cities (Indonesian: kotamadya).
Regencies (seat):
Bolaang Mongondow (Kotamobagu)
Minahasa (Tondano)
North Bolaang Mongondow (Boroko)
North Minahasa (Airmadidi)
Sangihe Islands (Tahuna)
Sitaro Islands (Ondong)
South Minahasa (Amurang)
Southeast Minahasa (Ratahan)
Talaud Islands (Melonguane)
Cities:
Bitung
Kotamobagu
Manado
Tomohon
Places of Interest
One of the most well-known tourism spots in North Sulawesi is the Bunaken Marine Park. Home to a vast collection of marine life, Bunaken is about 30 minutes away by boat from the capital of Manado. In 2009, North Sulawesi hosts the Sail Bunaken event which features the parade of ships and sailboats, including the USS George Washington.
Newspaper
Manado Post
Koran Manado
Komentar
Media Sulut
Tribun Manado
Tribun Sulut
Posko
Metro
North Sulawesi
Motto: Si Tou Timou Tumou Tou (Minahasan)
(Human purpose in life is to nurture and educate others)
Capital
Manado
Governor
Sinyo Harry Sarundajang
Area
15,364 km2 (5,932 sq mi)
Population
2,154,234 (2006)[1]
Density
140.2 /km2 (363 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
Minahasan, Bolaang Mongondow, Sangir, Talaud
Religion
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism
Languages
Indonesian (official)
Time zone
WITA (UTC+8)
Web site www.sulut.go.id
North Sulawesi (Indonesian: Sulawesi Utara) is a province of Indonesia. It is on the island of Sulawesi, and borders the province of Gorontalo to the west (originally a part of North Sulawesi until 2001 when it became its own province). The islands of Sangihe and Talaud form the northern part of the province, which border the Philippines.
The capital and largest city in North Sulawesi is Manado. With a population of about 2 million (As of 2006[1]), the region is predominantly Christian (70%) with Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist minorities, which is an exception in this predominantly Muslim country. The largest ethnic group is Minahasan.
Contents
1 Administrative areas
2 Places of Interest
3 Newspaper
4 References
5 External links
Administrative areas
North Sulawesi is divided into nine regencies (Indonesian: kabupaten) and four cities (Indonesian: kotamadya).
Regencies (seat):
Bolaang Mongondow (Kotamobagu)
Minahasa (Tondano)
North Bolaang Mongondow (Boroko)
North Minahasa (Airmadidi)
Sangihe Islands (Tahuna)
Sitaro Islands (Ondong)
South Minahasa (Amurang)
Southeast Minahasa (Ratahan)
Talaud Islands (Melonguane)
Cities:
Bitung
Kotamobagu
Manado
Tomohon
Places of Interest
One of the most well-known tourism spots in North Sulawesi is the Bunaken Marine Park. Home to a vast collection of marine life, Bunaken is about 30 minutes away by boat from the capital of Manado. In 2009, North Sulawesi hosts the Sail Bunaken event which features the parade of ships and sailboats, including the USS George Washington.
Newspaper
Manado Post
Koran Manado
Komentar
Media Sulut
Tribun Manado
Tribun Sulut
Posko
Metro
Sulawesi
1.5 Sulawesi
Sulawesi
Provincial Division
Geography
Location South East Asia
Coordinates 2°08′S 120°17′E2.133°S 120.283°E
Archipelago Greater Sunda Islands
Area 174,600 km² (11th)
Highest point Rantemario (3,478 m)
Country
Indonesia
Provinces
(capital) West Sulawesi (Mamuju)
North Sulawesi (Manado)
Central Sulawesi (Palu)
South Sulawesi (Makassar)
South East Sulawesi (Kendari)
Gorontalo (Gorontalo)
Largest city Makassar
Demographics
Population 16 million (as of 2005)
Density 92 /km2 (240 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups Makassarese, Buginese, Mandar, Minahasa, Gorontalo, Toraja, Bajau, Mongondow
Sulawesi (formerly known as Celebes, English pronunciation: /səˈliːbiːz/) is one of the four larger Sunda Islands of Indonesia and is situated between Borneo and the Maluku Islands.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Geology
3 Prehistory
4 History
4.1 Religious conflict
5 Geography
6 Flora and fauna
7 Population
7.1 Religion
8 References
9 External links
Etymology
The Portuguese were the first to refer to Sulawesi as 'Celebes'. The meaning of this name is unclear. One theory claims it means "hard to reach" due to rough waters full of currents and streams surrounding the island. Originally it did not refer to the entire island as the Portuguese thought Sulawesi was an archipelago. The modern name 'Sulawesi' possibly comes from the words sula ('island') and besi ('iron') and may refer to the historical export of iron from the rich Lake Matano iron deposits.[1]
Geology
According to reconstruction of plate tectonics, the island is believed to have been formed by the collision of terranes from the Asian Plate (forming the west and southwest), from the Australian Plate (forming the southeast and Banggai), and from island arcs previously in the Pacific (forming the north and east peninsulas). [2]
Prehistory
The settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans is dated to c. 30,000 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros.[3] No earlier evidence of human occupation has been found, but the island almost certainly formed part of the land bridge used for the settlement of Australia and New Guinea by at least 40,000 BC.[4] There is no evidence of Homo erectus having reached Sulawesi; crude stone tools first discovered in 1947 on the right bank of the Walennae river at Berru, which were thought to date to the Pleistocene on the basis of their association with vertebrate fossils,[5] are now thought to date to perhaps 50,000 BC. [6]
Following Bellwood's model of a southward migration of Austronesian-speaking farmers (AN),[7] radiocarbon dates from caves in Maros suggest a date in the mid-second millennium B.C. for the arrival of an AN group from east Borneo speaking a Proto-South Sulawesi language (PSS). Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sa'dan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested.[8] Subsequent migrations across the mountainous landscape resulted in the geographical isolation of PSS speakers and the evolution of their languages into the eight families of the South Sulawesi language group.[9] If each group can be said to have a homeland, that of the Bugis – today the most numerous group – was around lakes Témpé and Sidénréng in the Walennaé depression. Here for some 2,000 years lived the linguistic group that would become the modern Bugis; the archaic name of this group (which is preserved in other local languages) was Ugiq. Despite the fact that today they are closely linked with the Makasar, the closest linguistic neighbors of the Bugis are the Toraja.
Pre-1200 CE Bugis society was organized into petty chiefdoms, which would have warred and, in times of peace, exchanged women with each other. Personal security would have been negligible, and head-hunting an established cultural practice. The political economy would have been a mixture of hunting and gathering and swidden or shifting agriculture. Speculative planting of wet rice may have taken place along the margins of the lakes and rivers.
History
Starting in the 13th century, access to prestige trade goods and to sources of iron started to alter long-standing cultural patterns, and to permit ambitious individuals to build larger political units. It is not known why these two ingredients appeared together; one was perhaps the product of the other. By 1400, a number of nascent agricultural principalities had arisen in the western Cenrana valley, as well as on the south coast and on the east coast near modern Parepare.[10]
The first Europeans to visit the island (which they believed to be an archipelago due to its contorted shape) were Portuguese sailors in 1525, sent from the Moluccas in search of gold, which the islands had the reputation of producing.[11] The Dutch arrived in 1605 and were quickly followed by the English, who established a factory in Makassar.[12] From 1660, the Dutch were at war with Gowa, the major Makasar west coast power. In 1669, Admiral Speelman forced the ruler, Sultan Hasanuddin, to sign the Treaty of Bongaya, which handed control of trade to the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch were aided in their conquest by the Bugis warlord Arung Palakka, ruler of the Bugis kingdom of Bone. The Dutch built a fort at Ujung Pandang, while Arung Palakka became the regional overlord and Bone the dominant kingdom. Political and cultural development seems to have slowed as a result of the status quo. In 1905 the entire island became part of the Dutch state colony of the Netherlands East Indies until Japanese occupation in World War II. In 1949, after the Indonesian National Revolution, during which the notorious Dutch Captain 'Turk' Westerling is believed to have murdered between 3,000 to 4,000 people, Sulawesi became part of the independent United States of Indonesia, which in 1950 became the Republic of Indonesia.[13]
Religious conflict
Sulawesi has been plagued by Muslim-Christian violence in recent years. The most serious violence occurred between 1998 and 2001 on the once peaceful island. Over 1,000 people were killed in violence, riots, and ethnic cleansing that ripped through Central Sulawesi.[14] The violence pitted the island's Muslims against Christians (and vice versa). A peace accord was not agreed to until 2001.
The Malino peace accord did not eradicate the violence. In the following years, tension and systematic attacks persisted.[15] In 2003, 13 Christian villagers were killed in the Poso District by unknown masked gunmen. And in 2005 three Christian schoolgirls were beheaded in Poso by Islamic militants. A message next to one of the heads allegedly read: "A life for a life. A head for a head".[16]
Riots erupted again in September 2006 in Christian dominated areas of Central Sulawesi, as well as other part of Indonesia, after the execution by firing squad of Fabianus Tibo, Dominggus da Silva and Marinus Riwu, three Catholics convicted of leading Christian militias during the violence of the early 2000s. Their supporters claimed that Muslims who participated in the violence received very light sentences and that none were sentenced to death, and that the government used a double standard.[17] The violence appeared to be aimed at government authorities, not Muslims.[17]
Geography
Sulawesi is the world's eleventh-largest island, covering an area of 174,600 km2 (67,413 sq mi). The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, and by Flores and Timor to the south. It has a distinctive shape, dominated by four large peninsulas: the Semenanjung Minahassa; the East Peninsula; the South Peninsula; and the South-east Peninsula. The central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the island's peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road.
The island is subdivided into six provinces: Gorontalo, West Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi, and North Sulawesi. West Sulawesi is a new province, created in 2004 from part of South Sulawesi. The largest cities on the island are Makassar, on the southwestern coast of the island, and Manado, on the northern tip.
Flora and fauna
Nomorhamphus liemi female in an aquarium; there are at least 19 species of Nomorhamphus, most of which are only found on Sulawesi.
Sulawesi straddles Wallace's Line meaning that it has a mix of both Asian and Australasian species. However, the majority of Sulawesi's wildlife belongs to the Australasia region. 2,290 square kilometres (570,000 acres) of the island is devoted to Lore Lindu National Park.
There are 127 known mammalian species in Sulawesi. A large percentage of these mammals, 62% (79 species) are endemic, meaning that they are found nowhere else in Indonesia or the world. The largest native mammal in Sulawesi is the dwarf buffalo, locally known as the anoa. Other mammalian species inhabiting Sulawesi are the babirusa, a pig-like animal, the Sulawesi palm civet, several species of cuscus (the Sulawesi Dwarf Cuscus and Sulawesi Bear Cuscus), and primates including a number of tarsiers (the spectral, Dian's, Lariang and pygmy varieties) and several species of macaque, including the crested black macaque, the moor macaque and the booted macaque.
By contrast, because many birds can fly between islands, Sulawesian bird species tend to be found on other nearby islands as well, such as Borneo; only 34% of Sulawesi's birds are found nowhere else. One endemic bird is the largely ground-dwelling, chicken-sized maleo, which reproduces like no other bird: taking advantage of the hot sand produced by the island's volcanic vents, they dig holes in the sand, lay their eggs, and promptly leave the scene. There are around 400 known bird species in Sulawesi. The Togian White-eye is another endemic that was described in 2008. An international partnership of conservationists, donors, and local people have formed the Alliance for Tompotika Conservation[18], in an effort to raise awareness and protect the nesting grounds of these birds on the central-eastern arm of the island.
A Djampea Rainbow Lorikeet from Sulawesi.
Sulawesi also has several endemic species of freshwater fish, such as those in the genus Nomorhamphus, a species flock of livebearing freshwater halfbeaks containing at least 19 distinct species, most of which are only found on Sulawesi.[19]
[20] There are also many species of freshwater shrimp that are endemic to Sulawesi. Several of these species have become very popular in the aquarium hobby. They are considered some of the most beautiful freshwater shrimp species to be found and are not found anywhere else in the world. Several of these shrimp species are found only in specific lakes in Sulawesi, making them even more rare [21].
Orange Delight Shrimp from Sulawesi.
Freshwater snails endemic to Sulawesi are also extremely beautiful and like the shrimp are endemic to Sulawesi [22]. The snails and shrimp from Sulawesi have made a wonderful addition to the freshwater aquarium invertebrate hobby. However, there must be careful attention placed to conserve and protect these species as well as many others. Due to the small habitat and unique environment it is critical that all freshwater species from Sulawesi be conserved properly. An expedition was conducted by Mimbon Aquarium to the island of Sulawesi to document and collect some of the species of fish, shrimp and snails mentioned. There are several photos of the landscape, underwater habitat and some of the collected specimens from the expedition journal [23].
The island was recently the subject of an Ecoregional Conservation Assessment, coordinated by The Nature Conservancy. Detailed reports about the vegetation of the island are available [24]. The assessment produced a detailed and annotated list of 'conservation portfolio' sites . This information was widely distributed to local government agencies and nongovernmental organizations. Detailed conservation priorities have also been outlined in a recent publication [25].
The lowland forests on the island are, unfortunately, almost gone [26]. Because of the relative geological youth of the island and its dramatic and sharp topography, the lowland areas are naturally limited in their extent. The past decade has seen dramatic conversion of this rare and endangered habitat. The island also possesses one of the largest outcrops of serpentine soil in the world, which support an unusual and large community of specialized plant species. Overall, the flora and fauna of this unique center of global biodiversity is very poorly documented and understood and remains critically threatened.
Population
The 2000 census population of the provinces of Sulawesi was 14,946,488, about 7.25% of Indonesia's total population.[27] The largest city is Makassar.
Religion
Islam is the majority religion in Sulawesi. The conversion of the lowlands of the south western peninsula (South Sulawesi) to Islam occurred in the early 17th century. The kingdom of Luwu in the Gulf of Bone was the first to accept Islam in February 1605; the Makasar kingdom of Goa-Talloq, centered on the modern-day city of Makassar, followed suit in September.[28] However, the Gorontalo and the Mongondow peoples of the northern peninsula largely converted to Islam only in the nineteenth century. Most Muslims are Sunnis.
Christians form a substantial minority on the island. According to the demographer Toby Alice Volkman, 17% of Sulawesi's population is Protestant and 2% is Roman Catholic. Christians are concentrated on the tip of the northern peninsula around the city of Manado, which is inhabited by the Minahasa, a predominantly Protestant people, and the northernmost Sangir and Talaud Islands. The famous Toraja people of Tana Toraja in Central Sulawesi have largely converted to Christianity since Indonesia's independence. There are also substantial numbers of Christians around Lake Poso in Central Sulawesi, among the Pamona speaking peoples of Central Sulawesi, and near Mamasa. There has also been growth in the Christian population of the Banggai Islands and the Eastern Peninsula in Central Sulawesi, traditionally thought of as Muslim areas.
Though most people identify themselves as Muslims or Christians, they often subscribe to local beliefs and deities as well. It is not unusual (and fully accepted) for Christians to make offerings to local gods, goddesses, and spirits.
Smaller communities of Buddhists and Hindus are also found on Sulawesi, usually among the Chinese, Balinese and Indian communities.
Sulawesi
Provincial Division
Geography
Location South East Asia
Coordinates 2°08′S 120°17′E2.133°S 120.283°E
Archipelago Greater Sunda Islands
Area 174,600 km² (11th)
Highest point Rantemario (3,478 m)
Country
Indonesia
Provinces
(capital) West Sulawesi (Mamuju)
North Sulawesi (Manado)
Central Sulawesi (Palu)
South Sulawesi (Makassar)
South East Sulawesi (Kendari)
Gorontalo (Gorontalo)
Largest city Makassar
Demographics
Population 16 million (as of 2005)
Density 92 /km2 (240 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups Makassarese, Buginese, Mandar, Minahasa, Gorontalo, Toraja, Bajau, Mongondow
Sulawesi (formerly known as Celebes, English pronunciation: /səˈliːbiːz/) is one of the four larger Sunda Islands of Indonesia and is situated between Borneo and the Maluku Islands.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Geology
3 Prehistory
4 History
4.1 Religious conflict
5 Geography
6 Flora and fauna
7 Population
7.1 Religion
8 References
9 External links
Etymology
The Portuguese were the first to refer to Sulawesi as 'Celebes'. The meaning of this name is unclear. One theory claims it means "hard to reach" due to rough waters full of currents and streams surrounding the island. Originally it did not refer to the entire island as the Portuguese thought Sulawesi was an archipelago. The modern name 'Sulawesi' possibly comes from the words sula ('island') and besi ('iron') and may refer to the historical export of iron from the rich Lake Matano iron deposits.[1]
Geology
According to reconstruction of plate tectonics, the island is believed to have been formed by the collision of terranes from the Asian Plate (forming the west and southwest), from the Australian Plate (forming the southeast and Banggai), and from island arcs previously in the Pacific (forming the north and east peninsulas). [2]
Prehistory
The settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans is dated to c. 30,000 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros.[3] No earlier evidence of human occupation has been found, but the island almost certainly formed part of the land bridge used for the settlement of Australia and New Guinea by at least 40,000 BC.[4] There is no evidence of Homo erectus having reached Sulawesi; crude stone tools first discovered in 1947 on the right bank of the Walennae river at Berru, which were thought to date to the Pleistocene on the basis of their association with vertebrate fossils,[5] are now thought to date to perhaps 50,000 BC. [6]
Following Bellwood's model of a southward migration of Austronesian-speaking farmers (AN),[7] radiocarbon dates from caves in Maros suggest a date in the mid-second millennium B.C. for the arrival of an AN group from east Borneo speaking a Proto-South Sulawesi language (PSS). Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sa'dan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested.[8] Subsequent migrations across the mountainous landscape resulted in the geographical isolation of PSS speakers and the evolution of their languages into the eight families of the South Sulawesi language group.[9] If each group can be said to have a homeland, that of the Bugis – today the most numerous group – was around lakes Témpé and Sidénréng in the Walennaé depression. Here for some 2,000 years lived the linguistic group that would become the modern Bugis; the archaic name of this group (which is preserved in other local languages) was Ugiq. Despite the fact that today they are closely linked with the Makasar, the closest linguistic neighbors of the Bugis are the Toraja.
Pre-1200 CE Bugis society was organized into petty chiefdoms, which would have warred and, in times of peace, exchanged women with each other. Personal security would have been negligible, and head-hunting an established cultural practice. The political economy would have been a mixture of hunting and gathering and swidden or shifting agriculture. Speculative planting of wet rice may have taken place along the margins of the lakes and rivers.
History
Starting in the 13th century, access to prestige trade goods and to sources of iron started to alter long-standing cultural patterns, and to permit ambitious individuals to build larger political units. It is not known why these two ingredients appeared together; one was perhaps the product of the other. By 1400, a number of nascent agricultural principalities had arisen in the western Cenrana valley, as well as on the south coast and on the east coast near modern Parepare.[10]
The first Europeans to visit the island (which they believed to be an archipelago due to its contorted shape) were Portuguese sailors in 1525, sent from the Moluccas in search of gold, which the islands had the reputation of producing.[11] The Dutch arrived in 1605 and were quickly followed by the English, who established a factory in Makassar.[12] From 1660, the Dutch were at war with Gowa, the major Makasar west coast power. In 1669, Admiral Speelman forced the ruler, Sultan Hasanuddin, to sign the Treaty of Bongaya, which handed control of trade to the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch were aided in their conquest by the Bugis warlord Arung Palakka, ruler of the Bugis kingdom of Bone. The Dutch built a fort at Ujung Pandang, while Arung Palakka became the regional overlord and Bone the dominant kingdom. Political and cultural development seems to have slowed as a result of the status quo. In 1905 the entire island became part of the Dutch state colony of the Netherlands East Indies until Japanese occupation in World War II. In 1949, after the Indonesian National Revolution, during which the notorious Dutch Captain 'Turk' Westerling is believed to have murdered between 3,000 to 4,000 people, Sulawesi became part of the independent United States of Indonesia, which in 1950 became the Republic of Indonesia.[13]
Religious conflict
Sulawesi has been plagued by Muslim-Christian violence in recent years. The most serious violence occurred between 1998 and 2001 on the once peaceful island. Over 1,000 people were killed in violence, riots, and ethnic cleansing that ripped through Central Sulawesi.[14] The violence pitted the island's Muslims against Christians (and vice versa). A peace accord was not agreed to until 2001.
The Malino peace accord did not eradicate the violence. In the following years, tension and systematic attacks persisted.[15] In 2003, 13 Christian villagers were killed in the Poso District by unknown masked gunmen. And in 2005 three Christian schoolgirls were beheaded in Poso by Islamic militants. A message next to one of the heads allegedly read: "A life for a life. A head for a head".[16]
Riots erupted again in September 2006 in Christian dominated areas of Central Sulawesi, as well as other part of Indonesia, after the execution by firing squad of Fabianus Tibo, Dominggus da Silva and Marinus Riwu, three Catholics convicted of leading Christian militias during the violence of the early 2000s. Their supporters claimed that Muslims who participated in the violence received very light sentences and that none were sentenced to death, and that the government used a double standard.[17] The violence appeared to be aimed at government authorities, not Muslims.[17]
Geography
Sulawesi is the world's eleventh-largest island, covering an area of 174,600 km2 (67,413 sq mi). The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, and by Flores and Timor to the south. It has a distinctive shape, dominated by four large peninsulas: the Semenanjung Minahassa; the East Peninsula; the South Peninsula; and the South-east Peninsula. The central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the island's peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road.
The island is subdivided into six provinces: Gorontalo, West Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi, and North Sulawesi. West Sulawesi is a new province, created in 2004 from part of South Sulawesi. The largest cities on the island are Makassar, on the southwestern coast of the island, and Manado, on the northern tip.
Flora and fauna
Nomorhamphus liemi female in an aquarium; there are at least 19 species of Nomorhamphus, most of which are only found on Sulawesi.
Sulawesi straddles Wallace's Line meaning that it has a mix of both Asian and Australasian species. However, the majority of Sulawesi's wildlife belongs to the Australasia region. 2,290 square kilometres (570,000 acres) of the island is devoted to Lore Lindu National Park.
There are 127 known mammalian species in Sulawesi. A large percentage of these mammals, 62% (79 species) are endemic, meaning that they are found nowhere else in Indonesia or the world. The largest native mammal in Sulawesi is the dwarf buffalo, locally known as the anoa. Other mammalian species inhabiting Sulawesi are the babirusa, a pig-like animal, the Sulawesi palm civet, several species of cuscus (the Sulawesi Dwarf Cuscus and Sulawesi Bear Cuscus), and primates including a number of tarsiers (the spectral, Dian's, Lariang and pygmy varieties) and several species of macaque, including the crested black macaque, the moor macaque and the booted macaque.
By contrast, because many birds can fly between islands, Sulawesian bird species tend to be found on other nearby islands as well, such as Borneo; only 34% of Sulawesi's birds are found nowhere else. One endemic bird is the largely ground-dwelling, chicken-sized maleo, which reproduces like no other bird: taking advantage of the hot sand produced by the island's volcanic vents, they dig holes in the sand, lay their eggs, and promptly leave the scene. There are around 400 known bird species in Sulawesi. The Togian White-eye is another endemic that was described in 2008. An international partnership of conservationists, donors, and local people have formed the Alliance for Tompotika Conservation[18], in an effort to raise awareness and protect the nesting grounds of these birds on the central-eastern arm of the island.
A Djampea Rainbow Lorikeet from Sulawesi.
Sulawesi also has several endemic species of freshwater fish, such as those in the genus Nomorhamphus, a species flock of livebearing freshwater halfbeaks containing at least 19 distinct species, most of which are only found on Sulawesi.[19]
[20] There are also many species of freshwater shrimp that are endemic to Sulawesi. Several of these species have become very popular in the aquarium hobby. They are considered some of the most beautiful freshwater shrimp species to be found and are not found anywhere else in the world. Several of these shrimp species are found only in specific lakes in Sulawesi, making them even more rare [21].
Orange Delight Shrimp from Sulawesi.
Freshwater snails endemic to Sulawesi are also extremely beautiful and like the shrimp are endemic to Sulawesi [22]. The snails and shrimp from Sulawesi have made a wonderful addition to the freshwater aquarium invertebrate hobby. However, there must be careful attention placed to conserve and protect these species as well as many others. Due to the small habitat and unique environment it is critical that all freshwater species from Sulawesi be conserved properly. An expedition was conducted by Mimbon Aquarium to the island of Sulawesi to document and collect some of the species of fish, shrimp and snails mentioned. There are several photos of the landscape, underwater habitat and some of the collected specimens from the expedition journal [23].
The island was recently the subject of an Ecoregional Conservation Assessment, coordinated by The Nature Conservancy. Detailed reports about the vegetation of the island are available [24]. The assessment produced a detailed and annotated list of 'conservation portfolio' sites . This information was widely distributed to local government agencies and nongovernmental organizations. Detailed conservation priorities have also been outlined in a recent publication [25].
The lowland forests on the island are, unfortunately, almost gone [26]. Because of the relative geological youth of the island and its dramatic and sharp topography, the lowland areas are naturally limited in their extent. The past decade has seen dramatic conversion of this rare and endangered habitat. The island also possesses one of the largest outcrops of serpentine soil in the world, which support an unusual and large community of specialized plant species. Overall, the flora and fauna of this unique center of global biodiversity is very poorly documented and understood and remains critically threatened.
Population
The 2000 census population of the provinces of Sulawesi was 14,946,488, about 7.25% of Indonesia's total population.[27] The largest city is Makassar.
Religion
Islam is the majority religion in Sulawesi. The conversion of the lowlands of the south western peninsula (South Sulawesi) to Islam occurred in the early 17th century. The kingdom of Luwu in the Gulf of Bone was the first to accept Islam in February 1605; the Makasar kingdom of Goa-Talloq, centered on the modern-day city of Makassar, followed suit in September.[28] However, the Gorontalo and the Mongondow peoples of the northern peninsula largely converted to Islam only in the nineteenth century. Most Muslims are Sunnis.
Christians form a substantial minority on the island. According to the demographer Toby Alice Volkman, 17% of Sulawesi's population is Protestant and 2% is Roman Catholic. Christians are concentrated on the tip of the northern peninsula around the city of Manado, which is inhabited by the Minahasa, a predominantly Protestant people, and the northernmost Sangir and Talaud Islands. The famous Toraja people of Tana Toraja in Central Sulawesi have largely converted to Christianity since Indonesia's independence. There are also substantial numbers of Christians around Lake Poso in Central Sulawesi, among the Pamona speaking peoples of Central Sulawesi, and near Mamasa. There has also been growth in the Christian population of the Banggai Islands and the Eastern Peninsula in Central Sulawesi, traditionally thought of as Muslim areas.
Though most people identify themselves as Muslims or Christians, they often subscribe to local beliefs and deities as well. It is not unusual (and fully accepted) for Christians to make offerings to local gods, goddesses, and spirits.
Smaller communities of Buddhists and Hindus are also found on Sulawesi, usually among the Chinese, Balinese and Indian communities.
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